Il 


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LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

RIVERSIDE 


This  "OP  Book"  Is  an  Authorized  Reprint  of  the 
Original  Edition,  Produced  by  Microfilm-Xerography  by 
University  Microfilms,  Inc.,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  1965 


GNOMIC   POETRY 


IN 


ANGLO-SAXON 


EDITED  WITH  INTRODUCTION 
I.NOTES  AND  GLOSSARY 


BY 


BLANCHE  COLTON  WILLIAMS,  Ph.D. 


175* 


^1 


1893   i    PKtSS       I 


COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY  PRESS 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


c 


qnfarp  tujirclc-p-ju*  hfd  fyiSo^-c-  |>iirtcji  l>j-i  oxd^ojc-  L'lic" 
Cni  llJinTII^ATJc-  lie  Irj-J  ^1^*:^  ow./^-  -j-u7ni»ji  -j-uTi  vlnxio^fYC 
gl  l^v  Ii»cxr]x- Iur|if.-c|-c  lijici  CiuV^oif/iJc^uin  (»ju7)/c<'--v|«cr 

^rjio»>'-('i:|'«;^t  vcuLi. ^bidc^'-pcx  Vij  vutiJiLum  clitljojf -pole 

till TcpAii-mjny ic ^•dii!{^rox>Liti  io,icn: rjJap  dj-LUii  wbca, 
<Ju^c--ici>l3(iiJi  C^p^'  cUcii  i%xul.  uii  ctTjiL-Ckr  TsxhL ^  viA  heU- 

JnC'hibc  nruiJUiJ- /tucuf  r^val  ttjirtiruc-jMLV  rt*T'U7iiatj''pult: 
roul  oTibeanopc-  cojin  uji  /iu^»i' c*.t:oji  rcfai  oii/iolce'  aw  Jiw 
nrTicjT|ui;;i'  al  ra*»*i  i>u c^[c- Jin iicr  p/juxaii-  <Ju.uu3  rccvil  o»i 
!uUu.U.*rait  miic  tiJi-riTJi  lavil  tni/ijuriK- jouiAui  jccaV  -f 

cnic«^.'>lc-rcn:l  M*1»*^  nvn»i..«Ji'iiv..»ii.»  ivivJ  cm(»t^AU»nc  »Vjii/fr 
lie  iycpn-.>)tuca  Yi^ivJ.  oiiIiL-jV  Y|ujJ  j:|/aTj'Ul«  j'Luic-  j:i]-C 
rccuL  on  ivecciic-  cytiuon  cciiTuuicvjinir  iiAiL  otihcuUc- 

yccoL  yliJ.^  nuc^^j.-tfTuiii-vr]'*'   v^'*'^  '^'C  yuinn»r.-ajt  y«f[c|ui  ^c 
C]anM-c|uxY  jccai  o7ica|iLc-yir<>om  oii^'Cjui-  j'Ut.>u  |-c&4,^*"  . 

Cotton  Tibkkhs  H.  1,  11")  a. 


Copyright,  1914 
By  Columbia  University  Press 

Printed  from  type,  March,  1914. 


NortoootJ  J?rn» 

J.  B.  Cusbtng  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.B.A. 


! ' 

I  This  Monograph  has  been  approved  by  the  Department  of 

'■  English  and  Comparative  Literature  in  Columbia  University 

f  as  a  contribution  to  knowledge  worthy  of  publication. 

A.  H.  THORNDIKE, 

Executive  Officer, 


MY  MOTHER 


AND   TO   THE   MEMORY   OF 

I 


MY  FATHER 


PREFACE 

This  study,  in  attempting  to  show  the  prevalence 
and  significance  of  sententious  verse  throughout 
Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  falls  into  two  chief  divisions.  The 
introduction,  tliough  incidentally  drawing  illustra- 
tions from  Noi'th  Germanic  literature,  deals  mainly 
with  gnomic  lines  ia  Anglo-Saxon  epic,  lyric,  and 
didactic  poetry,  excuisive  of  the  Exeter  Ghiomes  and 
the  Cotton  Gnomes.  The  second  part  consists  of  the 
texts  of  tliese  collections,  prepared  from  the  manu- 
scripts, with  analysis  and  notes. 

One  of  the  j)leasures  arising  from  the  labor  of  put- 
ting together  this  little  volume  is  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  aid  and  friendly  criticism.  To  the  Reverend 
Canon  Walter  Edmonds,  of  Exeter  Cathedral,  I  am 
grateful  for  access  to  the  unique  Exeter  Manuscript. 
To  the  authorities  of  the  British  ^luseum,  to  the 
librarians  of  ILirvard  University,  and  particularly  to 
the  librarians  of  Columbia  University,  I  am  indebted 
for  unfailing  courtesy  and  helpful  cooperation.  Pro- 
fessor Frederick  Tupper,  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont, has  my  hearty  thanks  for  assistance  in  textual 
into'pretation  and  for  guidance  of  the  work  in  the 
summer  of  1012.  To  Professors  G.  P.  Krapp,  H.  M. 
Ayres,  and  A.  F.  J.  Remy  I  am  indebted  for  read- 
ing the  manuscript  and  offering  valuable  suggestions. 
To  Professor  W.  W.  Lawrence,  however,  I  owe  most. 


X  PREFACE 

He  called  the  subject  to  mj  attention  and  from  the 
beginning  has  generously  given  his  time  and  scholar- 
ship to  the  progress  of  the  investigation. 

The  bibliography  consulted  has  of  necessity  been  so 
voluminous  and  heterogeneous  that  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  select  a  representative  list  of  books.  Works 
referred  to  in  the  introduction  are  designated  in  foot- 
notes. For  abbreviations  in  either  part  which  are 
not  self-explanatory,  the  table  prefixed  to  the  text 

mav  be  consulted. 

B.  C.  W. 
New  York  City, 
December,  1913. 


CONTENTS 

A.   INTRODUCTION         .        .        .       ' 1 

L  Definitions  : 

1.  Gnome,  defined  by  various  authorities     .        .        .        •        2 

2.  Gnomists  and  gnomic  poetry  : 

a.   Greek.     Sixteenth-  and  seven teenth-centtiry  compi- 
lations from  Greek  gnomists.    Peacham's  tresr 

tise 3 

h.    Anglo-Saxon 6 

8.   Gnome  and  proverb  : 

Distinctions  in  Aristotle         ....         6 

Views  of  Moue,  Otto,  Bergraann  ...        7 

4.   Working  definition  of  term  "  gnomic  "    .         .        .        .        8 


II.   Origins  : 

1.   Gnomes  found  in  all  early  literatures 

a.   Gnomic  sayings  among  Persians  and  Indians    . 
h.    Gnomic  sayings  among  Germanic  tribes    . 

i.   Summary  for  early  Germanic  literary  forms :  wed 
ding  hymn,  death  song,  charm,  riddle,  etc 

ii.    Element  of  didacticism  enters 
iii.   Relations  of  these  early  forms.     Hymnic  poems. 

wit  and  wisdom  contests 
iv.   Gnomic  poems 


8 

10 
10 

12 
12 

13 

16 


XU  CONTENTS 

VAOl 

in.  More  Definite   Consideration  of   Gnomic  Sayings 
AMONG  Germanic  Tribes: 

1.  General.     Examples  from  Gennania  and  Runenlied        .      18 

2.  Particular : 

a.   Xorth  Germanic  :                                           • 
Examination  of  Poetic  Edda 
i.   Lays  of  Goda 19 

^    '    ,.     [small  gnomic  content  ....       19 
Dramatic,  J  ° 

Didactic,  numerous  gnomic  aayiugs       .          .         .  20 

ii.   Lays  of  Heroes .24 

All  contain  gnomic  wisdom 

iii.   Speakers  of  -wisdom  are  gods,  heroes,  men,  the  poet 

himself 27 

iv.   Subjects  :  fate,  courage,  etc 28 

6.   West  Germanic  :  Anglo-Saxon  : 

L    Heathen  poetry 29 

(i4)  Early  Epic: 

Beoxculf 29 

(B)    Early  Lyric : 

Wanderer        .         .         .         .         .         .         .42 

Seafarer           .......  47 

The  Banished  Wife's  Lament ,        .        .        .49 

The  Song  of  Deor    .         .         .         .         .         .51 

ii.   Christian  poetry : 

{A)   Early  Christian  poetry 53 

Didactic : 

On  the  Endowments  and  Pursuits  of  Men    .  53 

Fortunes  of  Men           .....  57 

Minda  of  Men      ......  58 

lite  Wise  Father's  Instruction     ...  59 

Epic : 

Cajdmonian  poetry : 

Exodus     .......  60 

Daniel 61 

Cynewulfian  poetry: 

Andreas  .......  62 

Christ 62 

Guthlac 63 


CONTENTS  Xiii 

PAOI 

Gnomic  expression  in  heathen  epic  compared 

with  that  in  Christian  poetry        .        .  64 

(B)   Late  Christie  n  poetry 64 

Solomon  and  Saturn  ......  65 

•    Bede's  Djath  Song 67 

Saying  of  Winfrid's  Time         ....  70 

IV.    CONSERVATIOK   OF    GnOMIC   PokTRY  : 

1.  Pulr  and  fiyJe 70 

2.  Verse  forms 78 

3.  Conclusions 80 

B.  DETAILED  CONSIDERATION  OF  EXETER  GNOMES 

AND   COTTON   GNOMES 83 

L  Introduction .  83 

II.   Table  of  Abbreviations 114 

HL   Text 118 

IV.  Notes  on  Gnomic  Verses 130 

V.  Glossary 153 


Gleawe  men  sceolon  gieddum  wrixlan 


GNOMIC  POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 


INTRODUCTION 


Aaiong  Anglo-Saxon  poems  which  have  received 
comparatively  small  notice  from  scholars  of  the  pre- 
sent day  are  the  Gnomic  Verses  of  the  Exeter  Book 
and  the  Cottoi.  Manuscript.  They  have  not  entirely 
escaped  observation,  for  they  have  been  printed  in 
collections  and  have  been  given  passing  glances  in 
articles  dealing  with  otlier  topics.  But  only  once 
have  they  formed  the  subject  of  a  separate  work.^ 
Practically  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  relate  the 
Gnomic  Verses  with  the  gnomic  mood  revealed  in 
sententious  sayings  of  epic  and  lyric.  Some  writers 
of  literary  history ,2  it  is  true,  indicate  that  they  rec- 
ognize the  relation,  but  they  have  lacked  space  for 
detailed  study.  No  writer  has  at  once  pointed  out 
the  significance  of  the  gnomic  reflections  which  occur 
so  often  in  early  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  traced  their 
gradual    decadence    as    the  Anglo-Saxon   period   de- 

1  Uber  die  AngelsachHlschen  Versus  Gnomici,  Hugo  Mtlller,  Jena,  1893. 

^  Weil. hold,  Meyer,  Koegel,  for  example.  Lawrence's  articles  on  the 
lyrics  liave  taken  more  account  of  the  gnomic  phase  than  have  the  works 
of  other  writers  ;  to  his  recognition  of  the  gnomic  mood  is  due,  in  a  num- 
ber of  poema,  a  new  interpretation  of  some  difficult  passage. 

1 


2  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

clined,  brought  together  the  most  prominent  examples, 
and  from  them  drawn  inferences  regarding  Teutonic 
life  and  thought.  Although  the  present  volume  is 
avowedly  indebted  to  all  predecessors  who  have  in 
any  one  of  these  particulars  contributed  notes  on 
gnomic  poetry,  it  claims  for  its  individual  achieve- 
ment the  modest  attempt  to  perform  the  varied  task 
just  indicated.^ 

At  the  outset  it  becomes  necessary  to  define  teiTns. 
According  to  the  New  Emjllsh  Dictionary,  a  gnome 
is  "  a  short  pithy  story  of  a  general  truth  ;  a  proverb, 
maxim,  aphorism,  or  apophtliegm."  The  Interna' 
tional  Encydopcedia  calls  it  "  a  short  and  pithy  pro- 
verbial saying,  often  embodying  a  moral  precept."  ^ 
La  Grande  Encydopedie  is  more  explicit :  "  On  designe 
sous  ce  nom  une  forme  particuliere  de  philosophic,  qui 
fieurit  surtout  au  Vr  siecle  avant  notre  ere,  et  qui  est 
comme  la  premiere  ebauche  de  la  morale.  Formuler 
des  sentences  qui  resument  I'experience  et  les  obser- 
vations de  ceux  qui  aiment  a  reflechir  sur  les  condi- 
tions de  la  vie  pratique,  y  meler  quelques  conseils 
presentes  sous  forme  de  maximes  breves  et  precises, 
raisonner  sur  la  vie,  mais  sans  rien  qui  ressemble  ^ 
une  theorie,  sans  principes  fixes  et  sans  methode  r6- 
guliere,  telle  fut  I'osuvre  des  premiers  gnomiques."  ^ 
Meyer's  Konversations-Lexikon  defines  gnome  as  *'  ein 
spruch,  in  dem  ergebnisse  der  lebensbeobachtung  in 

1  The  study  aims  in  no  respect,  however,  to  be  exhaustive.  Some  time 
ago,  Meyer  observed  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  compile  a  complete 
gnomology  of  Germanic  literature.  Later,  Koegel,  echoing  Weinhold, 
declared  the  desirability  of  a  monograph  on  gnomic  verse  in  Old  ^s'orse. 
It  is  signiticaiit  that  none  has  yet  been  written. 

8  VllI,  787.  '  IB.  1125- 


INTRODUCTION  3 

Bmnreicher  kiirze  ausgedriickt  sind,  entweder  metrisch 
oder  in  prosa  abgefasst.**  ^ 

The  German  "  denkspruch,"  synonym  of  "  gnome," 
is  defined  by  Grimm  {Worterhuch)  as  *' memorabilis 
sententia."  "  Sententia  "  is  the  term  Quintilian  em- 
ploys :  "  Antiquissimae  sunt,  quse  proprie,  quamvis 
omnibus  idem  nomen  sit,  sententise  vocantur,  quas 
Groeci  yvd-xaf;  appellant."  ^  "  Sententioe  "  is  evidently 
a  translation  of  the  Greek  yvw/xat.  Aristotle  devotes 
considerable  space  to  the  discussion  of  yvw/xat,'  wherein 
his  definition  is  translated  by  Jebb  as  follows :  *  "  A 
maxim  is  a  statement,  not  about  a  particular  fact,  as 
about  the  character  of  Iphikrates,  but  general ;  not 
about  all  things,  —  but  about  those  things  which  are 
the  objects  of  action,  and  whicb  it  is  desirable  or 
undesirable  to  do."  ^ 

From  combining  and  sifting  these  statements,  we 
may  say,  in  general,  a  gnome  is  a  sententious  saying ; 
in  particular,  it  may  be  proverbial,  figurative,  moral. 
The  various  types,  possessing  each  its  individual 
characteristics,  account  for  diversity  of  definition. 
But,  as  the  preceding  paragraphs  have  indicated,  the 
meaning  has  been,  on  the  whole,  pretty  constant  from 
the  time  of  Aristotle  to  the  present. 

Primarily,  the  noun  "  gnomist "  is  applied  to  the 
Greek  sententious  poets,  of  whom  the  first  —  Hesiod 

1  8,  00  (Ed.  1907).  Throughout,  I  havo  taken  the  liberty  of  normal- 
izing quotations  from  the  Germa.n  by  using  Roman  typo  and  avoiding 
capitalization  of  nouns. 

2  Orat.y  VIII,  5. 

«  Ithet.,  II,  xxi,  1-10. 

*  The  Ilhi'loric  of  Aristotle,  A  Translation  by  Sir,  R.  C.  Jebb,  ed.  by 
J.  Sandys,  Cambridge,  lUOl),  pp.  112-113. 

*  Nolo  tho  choice  of  Jebb,  —  "  maxim." 


4  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

and  Theognis  —  lived  some  six  hundred  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  These  gnoraists  are  the  ethical 
predecessors  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  many  of 
whose  reflections  are  gnomic  distiches  expanded. 
And  not  onl}^  lyrists  and  drara?otists  wrote  gnorao- 
logically ;  epic  poets  often  turned  aside  from  the 
narrative  to  make  sententious  generalizations. 

In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  various 
Greek  Gnomologies  were  compiled,^  of  which,  as  col- 
lectors, the  names  of  Neander^  and  Duport^  are 
prominent.  Neander  observed  that  the  gnomology 
of  the  Greeks  was  derived  from  the  Hebrews  ;  Duport 
published  with  his  Homeric  collection  an  "  Index  of 
places  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  to  which  the  gnomes 
of  Homer  are  similar  or  not  dissimilar."  Henrv 
Peachara  in  his  Garden  of  Eloquence  ^  was  writing 
not  only  with  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  mind,  as  exem- 
plars of  this  "  apte  brevity,"  but  was  also  erecting 
his  little  discourse  on  Aristotle's  foundation : 

*' Gnome,  a  saying  pertaining  to  the  manners,  and  com- 
mon practises  of  men,  wliicli  declareth  by  an  apte 
brevity,  what  in  this  our  lyfe  onght  to  be  done,  or 
not  done.  Fyrst,  it  is  to  be  noted,  that  every  sen- 
tence is  not  a  figure,  but  that  only  which  is  notn,ble, 
worthy  of  memory,  and  approved  by  the  judgement 
and  consent  of  all  men,  which  being  excellent,  maketh 
the  oration  not  only  bewtifull  and  goodlye,  but  also 

J  Probably  owing  to  the  impetus  given  by  Erasmus's  Adagiorum 
CoUertanea,  1515. 

^  Opus  Ajireum,  Lipsiae,  1559. 

'  Uomeri,  Poctarum  Seculorum  facile  priiicipia,  Gnomoloyia  Dxir- 
pUci  rarallelismo  iUustrata  ;  etc.^  Per  Jacobura  Duportum  Canta- 
brigiensim,  Gr;ccae  Liiigui«  nuper  Professorum  Regium,  Cantabrigiai, 
etc.,  KWO. 

*  The  Garden  of  Eloquence,  London,  1577,  p.  149  £f. 


INTRODUCTION  6 

grave,  puissante,  and  ful  of  maiesty,  whereof  there 
be  sundry  kindes." 

As  rhetorical  flowers,  then,  in  his  Garden^  the  gnomes 
are  analyzed  into  their  various  sub-species.  There 
are  ten  kinds,  according  to  the  elder  Peacham.^ 
Aristotle  named  but  four.  It  must  be  observed  that 
the  gardener  uses  ftrbitrary,  meaningless,  and  over- 
lapping classifications.     For  example : 

"  The  nynth  is  a  pure  seuteuce,  not  mixed  with  any 
figure  else,  as ;  the  covetous  uiau  wanteth  as  wel  that 
which  he  hath,  as  that  which  he  hath  not :  wyne 
maketh  glad  the  hart  of  man.  The  tenth  is  a  fygured 
sentence  whereof  there  be  as  many  kindes  as  there 
be  fygures,  and  if  it  be  figured,  it  hath  the  name  of 
the  same  figure  wherewitli  it  is  joyned." 

The  conclusion  is  more  pertinent : 

"  Now  in  a  sentence,  lieede  must  be  taken  that  it  be 
not  false,  straunge,  light,  or  without  pyth  :  secondly, 
that  they  be  not  to  thick  sprinckled,  and  to  ofte 
used,  that  which  is  lawfuU  for  Philosophers,  is  not 
graunted  to  Oratoures,  because  orators  are  the  hand- 
lers of  matters,  and  philosophers  the  instructors  of 
life." 

For  centuries  associated  with  Greek  and  Hebrew 
.  literatures,  the  term  ''  gnomic  "  has  been  tardily  ap- 
plied to  sententious  poetry  in  Anglo-Saxon.  In  1826, 
Conybeare,  observing  the  resemblance  of  certain  pas- 
sages in  the  Exeter  Book  to  writings  of  Tbeognis,  and 
sayings  of  Solon  and  the  Seven  Wise  Men,  published 
them   under   the   title,   "  Gnomic    Poem."^     Shortly 

1  Cf.  Quiiitilian,  Oral.  VIII,  6:  Sunt  ctiam,  qiii  decern  genera  fece- 
rint,  sed  eo  inodo,  quo  fieri  vel  piura  possunt. 

2  Illustrationa  of  Anglo-Saxvn   Poetry,  J.   J.    Conybeare,   London, 
1820,  pp.  viii,  2J8. 


6  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

afterwards  Thorpe  appropriated  the  adjective.^  Soon 
German  scholars  adopted  "  Versus  Gnomici "  or  its 
synonym  "Denkspriiche,"  and  at  the  present  time  both 
captions  are  in  establislied  usage.  It  may  as  well  be 
stated  here  that  Anglo-Saxon  verse  is  gnomic  so 
far  as  the  presence  of  gnomic  lines  here  and  there 
adds  sententiousness,  but  that  certain  poems  deserve 
preeminently  the  title  because  their  very  essence  is 
sententious.  Brandl  speaks  of  "  epos,  gnomik,  and 
lyrik "  as  if  to  rank  the  three  varieties  equal  in 
importance.-  The  field  between  epic  and  lyric  in 
Anglo-Saxon  verse  is  largely  occupied  by  poems  of  a 
moral  nature,  but  to  characterize  them  all  as  gnomic 
seems  extending  the  word  beyond  its  due  bounds,  at 
the  same  time  distorting  its  true  significance. 

Proverbs  have  been  sometimes  compared  with  or 
confused  with  gnomes.  Aristotle  recognized  differ- 
ent kinds  of  proverbs :  "  When  Aristotle  in  one 
place  defines  proverbs  as  *  Metaphors  from  species 
to  species,'  and  elsewhere  says,  '  Some  proverbs,  again, 
are  also  maxims,'  he  evidently  discriminates  between 
proverbs  in  the  stricter  sense  and  the  popular  sentence, 
though  he  classes  the  latter  in  a  wider  sense  likewise 
as  proverbs."  ^     Proverbs  which  are  "  metaphors  from 

1  Codex  Exoniensis,  B.  Thorpe,  London,  1842,  p.  viii. 

2  Geschichte  der  Altenglischen  Literntur,  in  Paul's  Grundriss,  1908,  I, 
1011,  and  passim.  Cf.  Goltber :  '■'■  Die  Eddalieder  enthalten  gottsr- 
und  heldensage  und  spruchweisheit."  —  Xordische  LiteratMrgcschichte, 
Leipzig,  1005,  p.  0. 

^  "  Wenn  Aristoteles  die  sprichworter  einmal  definiert  als  fieratpopal  dr 
il5ovi  iir  elSos  (o,  11)  und  an  einer  andereu  stelle  (2,  21)  sagt  tviai  tQ>v 
irapoi;iiuiv  Kal  yvCiaal  fiaiv,  so  unterscheidet  er  offonbar  zwischen  den 
sprichwortern  im  strengeren  sinne  und  den  volksttimliclien  sentenzen, 
reclinet  aber  auch  diese  im  weiteren  umfange  ebenfalls  noch  zu  den  sprich- 
wortern."  —  Die  Sprichworter  der  Rduier,  A.  Otto,  Leipzig,  1890,  p.  xii. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

species  to  species"  the  Greek  rhetorician  evidently 
takes  to  be  proverbs  in  the  usual  sense,  and  "  proverbs 
which  are  also  maxims  "  to  be  popular  sayings,  which 
by  virtue  of  expanded  definition  fall  under  the  generic 
terra.  This  difference  is  not  similar  to  the  one  to  be 
established  here ;  it  is  given  to  indicate  that  as  early 
as  Aristotle  rhetorical  distinctions  were  perceptible  in 
the  general  class  of  popular  sayings. 

Since  some  of  the  defmitions  make  "  gnome  "synony- 
mous with  ''proverb,"  significant  is  the  choice  of 
"  denkspruch,"  not  "sprichwort,"  by  Grimm.  F.  Mone 
says  in  effect  that  proverbs  (spriclivvorter)  and  gnomes 
(denkspriiche)  are  different  in  that  the  former  are 
popular  expressions,  while  the  latter  are  individual 
utterances.  Through  dissemination,  however,  gnomic 
sentences  may  become  proverbs.^  A  similar  distinc- 
tion is  made  by  Otto  in  the  work  just  referred  to, 
when  he  suggests  that  the  circulation  of  the  gnome  is 
less  extensive  than  that  of  the  proverb.^  F.  W. 
Bergmann,  in  his  collection  of  "  Spriiche,  Priameln, 
und  Runenlehren,"  expresses  a  similar  opinion.^  Pro- 
verbs (sprichworter)  are,  he  says  substantially,  prin- 
ciples derived  from  experience  of  folk  custom,  teaching 
of  folk  morality,  and  expression  of  folk  philosophy 
and  folk  wit.  Sayings  (spriiche)  are  differentiated 
principally  in  having  a  higher  wisdom,  which  rests 
upon  deeper  thought,  and  therefore  they  strike  a 
higher  tone.     Proverbs  and  sayings  blend  in  certain 

1  Quellen  vnd  Forschungen  zur  Qeschichte  der  Teutschen  Literatur 
und  Sprache,  Bd.  I,  p.  193. 

2"  .  .  .  gnomen — die  sicherlich  nie  in  weitere  kreLse  gedrungen 
sind."     Op.  cit.,  p-  ^^'^^ 

1  Den  Hehren  Spruche  (HAvamil),  Strassburg,  1877,  pp.  102  ff. 


8  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON" 

I 

instances,  as  for  example  when  a  saying  the  author 
of  which  is  known  and  celebrated  becomes  a  popular 
proverb. 

Such  attempts  to  separate  gnome  and  proverb^ 
however  successful  they  may  be  in  theory,  usually 
fall  short  in  practice.  In  Old  Norse  literature,  as 
Bergniann  adds,  the  difference  between  the  two  types 
of  expression  was  not  hard  and  fast ;  hence,  pro- 
verbial sayings  and  individual  sentences  are  desig- 
nated by  the  same  name,  indls  hctttir  (sprucharten), 
or  aphorisms.  They  meet  on  a  common  ground, 
where  tlie  term  "  spriiche  "  covers  both.  The  same 
thing  seems  to  be  true  of  Anglo-Saxon  aphorisms, 
which  though  of  individual  origin  have  often  a  pro- 
verbial ring;.^ 

In  this  study  the  word  "  gnomic  "  is  synonymous 
with  "  sententious."  (Cf .  "  gnome,"  above.)  The  ad- 
jective is  applied  to  a  generalization  of  any  nature 
whatsoever.  Such  generalization  may  or  may  not 
be  proverbial :  it  may  express  a  physical  truih,  an- 
nounce a  moral  law,  or  uphold  an  ethical  ideal.  The 
language  may  be  literal  or  figurative. 

And  now,  having  mapped  out  the  bounaaries  of 
the  term,  we  may  turn  to  the  questions  concerning 
the  oritrin  and  the  conservation  of  gnomic  verse. 

II 

Gnomes  are  very  common  in  early  literature 
and  they  probably  occur  among  all  peoples.  Egyp- 
tian literature  abounds  in  "  rules   for  wise  conduct 

1  E.g.,  Gn.  C,  10a,  i:?a;  Gn.  Ex.,  144,  155  b,  159,  168.  Cf.  Miiller, 
op.  cit.,  p.  ;U,  and  -Max  Forster,  Eng.  St.,  XXXI,  1  ff. 


INTRODUCTION 


and  good  manners  which  are  put  into  the  mouth  of 
a  wise  man  of  old  times,"  some  of  them  having  their 
origin  thousands  of  years  before  the  Christian  era.^ 
Somewhat  later,  the  sage  'Euey  bequeathed  to  his 
son  Chenshotep  a  set  of  comparatively  simple  prov- 
erbs, many  of  which  suggest  the  gnomic  IlSvamSl. 
"  Beware  of  a  woman  from  strange  parts,"  •'  Treat  a 
venerable  wise  miin  v/ith  respect,"  "  Drink  not  to 
excess,"  2  —  these  are  ilkistrative.^  It  is  well  known 
that  Chinese  classics  are  noteworthy  for  their  senten- 
tious character.  The  Shih,  or  the  Book  of  Poetry, 
which  includes  pieces  from  n.r.  1766  to  B.C.  586,  is 
filled  with  selections  of  a  gnomic-lyric  quality.  In  it 
occur  warnings  similar  to  those  in  other  early  litera- 
tures, "  Be  apprehensive,"  "  Be  cautious."  ^  From 
the  Shu,  the  most  ancient  of  the  classical  books 
(B.C.  2357-627  circ),  an  ode  entitled  the  Songs  of 
the  Fioe  Sons  contains  such  lines  as  "The  people 
are  the  root  of  a  country,"  and  "  The  ruler  of  men 
should  be  reverent  of  his  duties."  ^ 

If  we  ask,  then.  How  did  Germanic  sayings,  gnomic 

1  Proverbs  of  Ptahholep,  teaching  of  Dauuf,  teaching  of  Amenemhet. 
Cf.  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  A.  Eruian,  translated  by  H.  M.  Tirard,  Lon- 
don, 1894,  p.  831. 

2  I  hid.,  pp.  155,  105,  205.  Cf.  also  Die  Agyptische  Literatnr, 
A.  Erman,  in  Die  Orientalischen  Literaturen,  Berlin  und  Leipzig,  1006, 

p.  32. 

8  Tacitus  says  expres.sly  {Oermania,  IX)  that  "  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Germany  sacritice  to  Isis."  It  is  probable  the  Germans  had  some  god- 
dess similar  to  Isis,  just  as  their  gnomic  sayings  were  similar.  But  there 
was  not,  therefore,  necessarily  any  descent  of  gods  and  gnomologies  from 
Egypt  to  Germany.  Such  resemblances  merely  illustrate  the  universality 
of  conmuin  material. 

«  .^acrfd  Honks  of  the  East  (General  Editor,  Max  Muller),  III.  This 
volume  is  by  James  Legge,  Oxford,  1879.     Cf.  p.  4G9. 

6  Ibid.,  p.  79. 


10  GNOMIC  POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 

sentences,  arise  ?  we  may  temporarily  shift  the  an- 
swer by  inquiring  into  the  origin  of  gnomic  forms 
among  older  literatures.  Or  we  might  draw  nearer 
home  and  ask  how  gnomic  forms  •  arose  among  the 
older  brothers  of  the  Indo-European  family ;  for  even 
a  tentative  investigation  could  not  proceed  far  with- 
out some  comparison  of  traits  in  a  kinship  so  imme- 
diate. A  sweeping  glance  reveals  the  popularity  and 
prominence  of  wise  saws  among  the  Persians  and 
Indians,  who  sprinkled  their  fables  with  pithy  speeches 
or  summarized  the  lessons  of  their  narratives  in 
morals  tersely  expressed.  The  last  period  of  the 
Vedas  is  placed  within  five  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  This  was  the  age  of  Sutra  literature, 
a  "literature  of  short  sayings  strung  together  by 
teachers  who  studied  brevity."  ^  In  the  Hitopadesaf 
a  sequence  of  stories  presenting  counsel  for  the  train- 
ing of  a  prince,  one  finds  on  every  page  "  intercalated 
verses  and  proverbs"  which  come  from  ages  exceed- 
ingly remote.2 

Among  the  subjects  which  have  their  analogues,  if 
not  their  descendants,  in  the  Germanic  literatiures  is 
the  immutability  of  fate.  "  That  which  will  not  be 
w^iU  not  be,  and  that  which  is  to  be  will  be."  ^  This 
thought  is  repeated  time  after  time.  "Destiny  is 
mightiest,"  Arnold  translates  what  is  doubtless  the 

^  Fables  and  Proverbs  from  the  Sayiskrit,  being  the  Hitopadesa, 
translated  by  Charles  V/ilkins,  Introduction  by  H.  Morley,  London, 
1888,  p.  6.  A  later  translation  of  the  Hitopadesa  is  Die  Freundliche 
Belehrung,  J.  Hertel,  Leipzig,  1894, 

2  Cf.  The  Book  of  Good  Counsels:  From  the  Sanskrit  of  the  Hito- 
padesa, Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  M.A.,  London,  1861,  p.  x. 

«/6id.,p.  3. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

"Wyrd  bis  swiSost"  of  Teutonic  nations.*  The 
value  and  worth  of  friends  are  also  emphasized,  as  in 
the  Hovamol  and  Gnomic  Verses.  "  That  friend 
only  is  the  true  friend  who  is  near  when  trouble 
comes,"  "^  and  "  Long-tried  friends  are  friends  to  cleave 
to."^ 

But  the  Teutons  developed  their  literature  inde- 
pendently of  the  Asiatics  and  possessed  a  gnomology 
of  their  own.  How,  then,  did  it  arise  ?  To  answer 
the  question,  we  may  as  well  strike  the  trail  into 
the  backward  of  Germanic  time  as  into  that  of  a 
darker  and  more  remote  Oriental  epoch.  In  a  high 
degree,  motives  were  the  same,  whetlier  those  motives 
produced  their  results  in  the  oldest  Eastern  literature 
or  in  the  youngest  Western  literature.  A  few  guide- 
posts  mark  the  way  to  Germanic  origins,  some  of  which 
are  fragments  of  early  writings,  and  others  the  state- 
ments of  historians  about  those  writings.     We  may 

^  Cf.  i6id.,  p.  3,  p.  17.  One  has  only  to  turn  through  Bohtlingk's  three- 
volume  collection  of  Indische  tSprUche  (St.  Petersburg,  1870-1873)  or 
even  the  small  compilation  of  Fritze  (Indische  Spriiche,  Leipzig)  to  find 
counterparts  of  ideas  we  shall  come  across  in  Germanic  literature.  Take, 
for  instance,  Fritzc's  last  three  lines  of  No.  15  : 

'•  Ob  wol  des  menschen  arbeit  je  gelingt, 
Wenn  hindernd  ihm  auf  seinen  wegen 
Die  macht  des  schicksals  tritt  entgegen  ?  " 
and  No.  217 : 

"  Es  traf  sich,  dass  sich  aus  der  harten  hand 
Des  fischers,  die  ihn  hielt,  ein  karpfen  wand. 
Da  fiel  er  in  das  netz  zuriick.     Er  sprang 
Auch  aus  dem  netz  ;  allein  darauf  verschlang 
Ein  reiher  diesen  armsten.     Wer  entrinnt, 
Wenn  feindlich  ihm  das  schicksal  ist  gesinnt  I  " 
"Who  escapes   if   Fate  is  iiiimically  disposed   to  him?"   might  be 
answered  by  the  Teutonic  passage,  Beoiculf,  672&-573  (see  p.  36). 
s  Book  of  Good  Cjunsels,  p.  22. 
•  Ibid.,  p.  73. 


12  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

further,  to  some  advantage,  compare  early  civilization 
with  that  existing  to-day,  especially  with  that  of 
"  primitive "  communities,  among  whom  superficial 
ideals  of  culture  interfere  but  slightly  with  native 
habit  and  custom. 

Motives  in  literature  spring  out  of  elementary  life 
concepts : '  tlic  world  external  and  internal ;  the 
gods  ;  the  wonderful  or  marvelous  ;  individual  human 
beings  and  fundamental  emotions,  —  the  hero,  friend- 
ship, love ;  daily  life,  and  cliaracter.  The  truth  of 
such  a  statement  will  hardly  be  questioned :  it  is 
obvious.  The  primitive  literary  impulse,  then,  will 
celebrate  the  gods  in  hymnic  form,  the  human  being 
in  wedding  hymns,  heroic  lay,  or  death  song ;  it  will 
make  a  speech  or  terse  saying  or  ask  a  riddle  about 
a  natural  phenomenon  ;  -  it  will  invent  a  charm  to 
drive  away  an  evil  spirit.'" 

Didacticism  enters  very  early  ;  it  is  natural  to  man- 
kind to  teach,  and  in  a  time  when  memory  is  the 
only  book,  to  instruct  with  brevity,  terseness  and 
weightiness  is  to  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance. 

"  '  What  is  best  for  the  good  of  a  tribe,  0  Cormac  ?  ' 
said  Carbre.  "^ 

iCf.  Die  altgermanische  Poesie,  Richard  M.  Meyer,  Berlin,  1880,  pp. 
41-72. 

'Cf.  Native  Tribes  of  Central  Australia,  Spencer  and  Gillen,  Lon- 
don, 1899,  p.  360.  Sitting  for  hours,  the  men,  women,  old  men,  old 
women,  —  all  will  chant,  "The  sand-hills  are  good,"  "Bind  the  Nur- 
tunga  round  with  rings,"  and  the  like.  Cf.  also  Primitive  Poetry  and  the 
Ballad,  in  Modern  Philology  I,  200,  where  Gummere  alludes  to  the  ex- 
ample here  given. 

Otto  notes  discriminations  between  old  proverbs  and  later  proverbs. 
—  Op.  cxt.,  p.  xix. 

'^  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Literatur,  II.  Koegel,  Strassburg,  1894,  I, 
12-43. 


INTRODUCTION  13 

"  ^  Not  hard  to  tell,'  said  Cormac.  *  Questioning 
the  wise  .  .  .  Following  ancient  lore  .  .  .  Pleading 
with  established  maxims.'  "  ^ 

A  brief  review  of  the  earlier  types  will  indicate 
how  they  intermingle  and  overlap,  and  how  all  served 
as  a  matrix  for  embedding  precious  gems  of  wisdom. 

Hymnic  forms  among  the  Germans  were  noticed  by 
Tacitus,  who  says  that  in  their  ancient  songs,  "  car- 
minibus  antiquis,"  they  celebrate  the  fathers  and 
founders  of  the  race.-  Bridal  songs,  originally  a 
special  kind  of  religious  hymn,^  are  present  among 
all  Indo-European  peoples.  The  love-lyric  is  an  early 
development.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the 
Germanic  lady  gave  advice  and  counsel  to  her  lover 
or  prophesied  for  him.  Tacitus,  again,  has  some- 
thing to  say  about  this  gift  of  the  woman :  "  They 
even  think  their  women  to  have  something  of  sanc- 
tity and  foreknowledge,  neither  do  they  scorn  their 
advice  nor  neglect  their  answers."  ^  As  an  example, 
consider  the  Sl(jr(lnf()m6l.  After  Sigidrifa  has  been 
roused  from  her  slumber  by  Sigurd,  she  regales  him 
with  wise  sayings  and  counsels;  then  she  prophesies.^ 

Songs  in  honor  of  the  dead  are  probably  as  early  as 
funeral  rites.''     From  such  ceremonies  as  were   per- 

1  The.  In^h-uctions  of  King  Cormac  Mac  Airt,  Kuno  Meyer,  Dublin, 
1909,  p.  7  ff. 

^  Germania,  II. 

*  Koegel,  op.  cit.,  I,  44. 

*  "  Iiicsse  (luinotiam  sanctum  ^liquid,  etprovidum  putant ;  necaut  con- 
ailia  earum  asperr.antur,  aut  responsa  neglif^nt."  —  Ocrmania,  VIII. 
Strabo  spealts  of  proi)hete.sse3  among  the  Cimbri,  cf.  Oeog.  Bk.  VII,  Ch. 
2;  Cu;s:ir  ha.s  something  to  say  about  the  wise  mothers,  cf.  de  Bella  Gal- 
lico,  I,  50. 

6  Cf .  p.  20. 

*  "  Kino  toteuklage  war,  wijesscheiiit,  achon  in  indogermanischer  zeit 


14  GNOMIC  POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

formed  at  the  funerals  of  Attila^  and  Beowulf,* 
where  warriors  rode  about  the  mound  chanting  the 
deeds  of  the  illustrious  hero,  it  is  but  a  step  to  wor- 
ship of  the  dead  and  to  verses  in  memory  of  the  de- 
parted. Or,  in  another  direction,  it  is  but  a  step  to 
the  charm  which  would  keep  away  the  influence  of 
an  undesirable  ghost.^  The  kinship  of  memorial 
verses  and  of  charms  to  gnomes  is  immediate. 

Riddles,  like  most  literature  of  similar  kind,  are  of 
great  age,  having  arisen  early  both  among  European 
and  Asiatic  peoples.  From,  the  riddle  itself  are  evolved 
riddle-contests,  the  largest  class  of  which  is  that 
wherein  two  persons  alternately  ask  and  answer  riddles. 
Usually  life  or  some  other  heavy  penalty  is  the  forfeit 
for  failing  to  guess  correctly  the  answer;  this  failure 
terminating  a  sequence  of  alternate  propounding  and 
solving.^  From  such  a  game,  gnomic  wisdom  may 
readily  arise.  The  close  connection  between  the  rid- 
dle and  the  gnome  may  be  illustrated  by  this  example :  ^ 
"  What  is  blacker  tlian  the  raven?"  "There  is  death." 
""What  is  whiter  than  the  snow?"  "There  is  the 
truth."     Combine  question  and  answer,  and  a  gnome 

mit  der  leichenfeier  verb-mden."  —  Qeachichte  der  Deutsch.  Lit.,  J.  Kelle, 
Berlin,  1892, 1, 10.  For  a  concise  treatment  of  the  subject,  see  ScliUckmg's 
Angelmchsisches  Totenklagelied,  in  Eng.  St.,  XXXIX,  1  ff, 

1  Cf.  Jordanes,  XLIX. 

'^  Beowulf,  3111  fl. 

'  Cf.  TTie  Elder  or  Poetic  Edda,  Part  I,  edited  and  translated  by 
Olive  Bra}',  London,  1908,  p.  xiii. 

*  Cf.  The  English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads,  edited  by  F.  J. 
Child,  I,  1,  "Kiddles  Wisely  Expounded."  Seethe  riddle  contest  in 
Judges  xiv,  12  ff.  The  unfair  advantage  Samson  takes  of  hi^  opponent3 
is  of  a  kind  with  that  which  Gagnrad  practices  on  Vaf^rti^nir  (see  below). 
For  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  riddle  literature,  see  introduction  to 
The  Piddles  of  the  Exeter  Book,  F.  Tupper,  Jr.,  New  York,  1910. 

*  The  English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads,  p.  3. 


INTRODUCTION  15 

results :  "  Truth  is  whiter  than  snow."      Or  the  pro- 
cess may  have  been  the  other  way  about. 

In  this  iUustration,  we  come  near  to  the  origin  of 
figures  in  general.  "  So  thoroughly  does  riddle  mak- 
ing belong  to  the  mytliologic  stage  of  thought,  that 
any  poet's  simile,  if  not  too  far  fetched,  needs  only 
inversion  to  be  made  at  once  into  an  enigma.  The 
Hindu  calls  the  sun  Saptasva,  i.e.,  seven-horsed,  while 
with  the  same  thought  the  old  Germanic  riddle  asks, 
*  What  is  the  chariot  drawn  by  seven  white  and  seven 
black  horses?'  '  The  3'ear  drawn  by  the  seven  days 
and  nights  of  the  week.'  "  ^ 

Tacitus  observes  that  the  Germans  love  idleness 
yet  hate  peace:  "ament  inertiam,  et  oderint  quietem." 
In  this  respect,  they  resemble  the  sprightly  but  indolent 
Persians,  to  whom  conversation  is  a  game  of  skill, 
who  "  wish  to  measure  wit  with  you,  and  exact  an 
adroit,  a  brilliant,  or  a  profound  answer."  ^  "When,  at 
home  from  !>attle,  our  Germanic  forefatliers  sprawled 
around  a  fire  and  lazily  employed  tlicir  minds  in  a 
matching  of  wits,  they  found  riddle-contests  a  popular 
means  of  diversion.  , 

In  the  contests  handed  down  to  us,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  sententious  utterance  appears,  in  keeping 
with  the  wit  and  wisdom  of  the  speaker.  Take,  for 
example,  Yafpru^nesinol,  one  of  the  best  representatives 
of  this  class.  Odin,  in  the  guise  of  Gagnrad,  comes  to 
the  home  of  the  giant.    Before  entering,  he  generalizes  : 

1  Primitive  Culture,  E,  B.  Tylor,  London,  1871,  I,  84.  Cf.  Kelle, 
op.  cit.,  p.  74  :  "  Ausser  sprichwoitern  waren  riitsel  und  riitseldichUingen 
in  geistlichen  kreisen  verbreuet." 

2  R.  W.  Emerson,  in  I'refaca  to  the  OuUstan  of  Sadi,  translated  by 
F.  Gladwin,  Boston,  1805. 


16  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

"  Let  the  poor  man  who  crosses  the  threshold  of  the  rich 

Speak  useful  words  or  keep  silent ! 
Talkativeness  works  ill  for  every  one 
Wlio  comes  to  the  cold-hearted."' 

Solomon  and  Saturn,  a  poem  of  similar  kind,  affords 
numerous  instances  of  gnomic  expression. 

In  this  rapid  summary,  then,  it  may  be  seen  that 
various  types  of  early  poetry  contained  sententious 
wisdom.  But  sometimes  the  maxims,  instead  of 
being  encased  in  a  lyric  or  a  narrative  poem,  were 
strung  together,  as  in  the  Hqvam^l  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Gnomic  Verses.  And  it  should  here  be  noted 
that  the  earliest  gnomic  verse  among  the  Teutons 
must  be  studied  in  Old  Norse  and  in  Anglo-Saxon.  In 
Old  High  German,  tlie  remains  are  insufTicient  and 
inconsiderable,"^  the  chief  survivals  appearing  to  be  a 
few  lines  of  denksprUche, "  and  a  fragmentary  me- 
morial poem."*  As  Scherer*' says,  the  principles  which 
for  the  Teutons  regulated  life  and  morality  were  em- 
bodied in  poetic  form.  There  were  no  written  laws, 
but  the  priest  proclaimed  those  popularly  approved. 
Hence  came  into  play  alliteration  and  other  aids  to  the 

1  <^auhogr  mahr,  es  til  anhogs  kemr, 
miiln  {'aift  el-a  ]'egv  I 
Ofruixlge  mikel  hykk  at  ilia  gete 
hveims  vit>  kaldrifjahan  kemr. 
—  Die  Lieder  der  Edda,  Sijmons-Gering,   Halle,  1900,  I,  67.     Hereafter, 
abbreviated  to  S.-G. 

Line  2  of  this  stanza  is  found  also  in  II(>vam()l,  stanza  19,  S.-G.  I,  27. 
^Cf.  Koegel,  op.  cit.,  I,  70. 

^  Cf.  Denkmaler  Deutacher  Puesia    und  Prosa  ana   dem    VIII-XII 
Jahrhundi'H,  hcraiiKgigibin  von  K.  MllllciihufI  und  W.  Scherer,  Dritte 
Ausgabe,  Horlin,  18'.)2.     Dnt/csprUche,  I,  1S)5. 
*  Jhid.y  Mciiuinto  Mori,  I,  7:J. 

''A  History  of  German  Literature,  by  W.  Scheror,  translated  from 
the  3rd  German  ed.  by  Mrs.  F.  C.  Conybeare,  New  York,  1886,  I,  14. 


INTRODUCTION  ^  17 

memory,  which,  manifesting  themselves  in  a  string  of 
precepts,  might  claim  the  title  of  poetry.  Such 
examples  of  alliterative  precepts  may  be  fomid  in  the 
old  constitution  of  the  Icelanders  ;  for  instance,  in  the 
formula  of  peacemaking  occurs  the  clause  :  ^ 

"  And  he  of  you  twain  that  shall  go  against  the  settlement 

or  atonement  made, 
Or  break  the  bidden  troth, 
He  shall  be  wolf-hunted  and  to  be  hunted, 
As  far  us  men  hunt  wolves  :  ^ 

Christian  men  seek  churches  ; 
Heathen  men  sacrifice  in  temples; 
Fire  burneth;  earth  groweth; 
Son  calleth  mother,  and  mother  beareth  son  ; 
Folk  kindle  iire ; 
Sliip  saileth  ;  shields  glint ; 
Sunshineth;  snowlieth; 
The  Fin  skateth  ;  the  fir  groweth; 
Tiio  hawk  fiieth  the  lon-j:  spring  day, 
With  a  fair  wind  behind  him  on  wings  outspread  ; 
Heaven  turiieth ;  earth  is  dwelt  on, 
"Wind  bloweth,  waters  fall  to  the  sea; 
Churl  soweth  corn.'* 

*  En  Kil  yccMrr  es  ^'eii!,'r  a  gtorvar  sdtter,  e^a  vegr  i,  velttar  trygfBer. 
\p&  Bcal  haiin  svil  vfSa  vari^-r  vnecr  oc  vreceun,  Bern  menn  vldazt  varga  a 

vreca. 
Cristner  nienn  circjor  sdbkja, 
heiSner  meiin  hof  bi6«a, 
elldr  up  breniir,  iaorS  f^r&r 
inaogr  in65or  callar  ;  oc  mo'Ser  maog  feeder, 
allder  ek!a  cynda  : 
Bcip  scrfSr,  scilder  blfcja, 
b61  sciim,  hnaj  leggr, 
FiXr  HcrlSr,  fura  vex, 
valr  llygr,  vilr-lan^Mn  dag  ; 
KlcMilr  lu^iinin  liyrr  l)tiiin  nud  hAiSa,  vicngo: 
liiiniiui  livfifr,  liciiur  uh  bygKr, 
vindr  l-ytr,  vaoln  lil  Hiovlir  falla, 
carlar  cuniu  k&. 

Oriyines  /s/auJiccc.VigfuHson  and  Powell,  Oxford,  1005,  I^  316,  note. 


18  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

Such  a  formula  bears  the  hall-marks  of  antiquity,  in  spite 
of  the  line  introduced  after  the  advent  of  Christianity. 

Ill 

Having  observed  the  presence  of  sententious  sayings 
among  the  early  Teutons,  and  having  glanced  at  their 
relations  with  other  types  of  literature,  we  may  fit- 
tin  dv  investigate  the  nature  of  those  sayings.  What, 
in  particular,  are  the  kinds  of  gnomic  wisdom  sup- 
posedly proceeding  from  the  mouths  of  gods,  god- 
desses, and  earthly  men  and  women  ?  By  selecting 
and  classifying  a  number  of  representative  examples, 
we  may  best  answer  this  question. 

The  first  recorded  saying  which  appears  to  be 
Germanic,  is  reported  by  Tacitus  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  era :  "  Women  must  weep  and  men 
remember,"  "  Feminis  lugere  honestum  est,  viris 
meminisse."  ^  The  pithiness  of  the  remark,  its  an- 
tithetic character,  and  especially  its  reflection  of  life 
are  probably  typical  of  the  sayings  of  the  tribe  com- 
memorated by  the  Latin  historip.n.^  It  is  similar  to 
Beowulf,  1385-1386 : 

Ne  sorga,  snotor  guma !     Selre  bi3  Sghwsem, 
J)3et  he  his  freond  wrece,  ponne  hS  feia  murne. 

1  Germania,  XXVII. 

2  Translators  generally  render  the  maxim  as  if  it  were  a  Latin  transla- 
tion from  the  German.  Cf.  Germania,  W.  II.  Fyfo,  1008,  and  the  edition 
of  N.  S.  Smith,  1828.  The  latter  compares  the  custom  with  a  similar  one 
among  the  Canadian  Indians.  But  it  should  be  stated  that  Meyer  is  more 
conservative:  "...  man  kaum  de-  versuchung  widersteht,  den  berich- 
terstattern  des  alten  historikers  schon  ein  sprtichlein  iihnli^her  art  zuzu- 
schreiben."  —  Op.  cit.,  p.  457.  And  Mullenhofi,  D.  A.K.,  IV,  384,  notes  a 
resemblance  of  the  speech  to  one  in  Seneca:  "Hoc  prudentum  virum  non 
decet:  meminisse  perseveret,  lugere  desinat."     Epist,  90,  22. 


INTRODUCTIOW  19 

But  whether  the  reflection  in  Tacitus  be  from  the 
Germans  or  from  the  RomaTis,  it  is  probably  no  more 
ancient  than  a  store  of  familiar  sayings  from  which 
the  Teutons  drew  in  nf.mjing  their  runes.  For  out 
of  such  sayings  they  chose  catchwords  by  which  they 
designated  the  letters.  Need  lieth  heavy  on  the  heart 
(Nyd  by))  ner.ru  on  breostan),  Hope  he  enjoyeth  not, 
who  knoweth  little  of  care  (Wen  ne  bruce}),  ^e  can 
weana  lyt),^  Wealth  is  transitory  for  everyone  under 
heaven  (Feoh  seghwaem  biS  Isene  under  lyfte),^  —  such 
instances  illustrate  the  view  of  Meyer,  that  the  old 
runic  names  Mvere  suggestive  of  fixed  maxims  and 
postulat'js.'* 

But  let  us  consider,  more  definitely,  the  remains  of 
the  North  Germanic  and  the  West  Germanic  litera- 
tures preserved  in  Old  Norse  and  Anglo-Saxon.  In 
the  Eddie  lays  of  gods  and  heroes  are  found  wise 
saws,  descended  from  a  remote  age.  In  -  the  lays 
of  epic  character,  they  are  infrequent,  except  in  so 
far  as  propliecy  is  itself  gnomic.     In  the  Voloqyo^  the 

1  Ji^.inenlied  (Bib.  I,  331  ff.),  1.  27. 
a  EJene  {Bib.  II,  120  ff.),  H.  12696-12700. 

«  Op.  cit.,  p.  2.  Meyer  adds,  "  deren  typua  die  ags.  '  denkspriiche'  am 
getreuesten  bewabren  mogen  " 

*  It  i3  interesting    by  way  of  comparison  to  look  at  the  Japanese 
alphabet  and  to  see  that  the  syllable  names  may  be  joined  to  form  gnomic 
verses.     The  forty-seven  cliaiacter.s  (the  tinal  nasal,  the  forty-eighth  char- 
acter, is  not  included)  have  been  arranged  by  the  Japanese  to  read: 
The  pleasures  of  life  arc  ephemeral  1 

But,  after  all,  what  i^  there  that  is  desirable  hi  this  world? 
In  the  depth.s  of  the  mount  of  existence,  the  present  day  passes, 
And  is  not  even  for  us  so  much  as  the  intoxication  of  a  flitting  dreaml 
I  translate  freely  from  the  French  of  L.  Kosny,  in  Cours  Pratique  de 
Langue  Japunnise,  Paris,  11)03,  pp.  8-10. 

For  calling  this  gnomic  instance  to  my  attention,  I  am  indebted  to  my 
friend  Professor  Raymond  Weaver  of  the  Hiroshima  Koto  Shihangakko. 


20  GNOMIC   rOETKY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

sibjl  gives  answer  from  her  seat,  performs  her 
divinations,  and  prophesies  for  Odin.  Occasional 
examples  of  this  sort  may  be  termed  gnomic  pro- 
phecies, having  the  brevity,  but  not  perhaps  the  hid- 
den or  double  meaning,  of  Greek  oracles.  The  same 
kind  of  thing  is  found  in  Baldrs  draumar,  wherein 
Odin  rides  to  the  lofty  hall  of  hell  and  from  her 
grave  wakens  the  dead  prophetess  who  shall  explain 
the  meaning  of  Balder's  bad  dreams. 

Nor  in  the  dramatic  '  poems  do  we  find  many  exam- 
ples of  sententious  moralizing.  The  Lokasenna,  in 
spite  of  its  flyting  nature  and  gnomic  form,  yields 
nothing.  The  IlarharMljdP  might  be  supposed  to  teem 
with  the  wisdom  of  Grevbeard ;  but  he  confines  his 
impersonalities  to  the  thrifty  remark,  "  What  is 
scraped  from  one  oak  benefits  another.  Every  man 
for  himself."  -  Skirnir  answers  sententiously  to  the 
herdsman  who  declares  him  doomed  if  he  goes  to  the 
halls  of  hell :  "  Resolution  is  better  than  lamentation 
for  one  who  is  ready  to  go  on  a  journey,"  ^  and  he 
adds  that  his  leno-th  of  life  has  been  decreed  and  set 
to  a  certain  day. 

But  as  would  be  expected,  the  didactic  poems  —  or 
those  which  most  deserve  the  adjective — contain 
numerous  gnomic  expressions.  The  IlSvamql  is 
classed  by  Meyer  as  one  of  the  three  essentially 
gnomic  poems  in  Germanic  literature."* 

1  In  a  sense,  all  the  poems  are  didactic.     But  epic  and  dramatic  qual- 
ities are  stronger  in  tlie  lays  here  tentatively  classed  under  these  hcLidings. 
"^  pat  hefr  eik  es  af  annarre  skefr, 

of  sik  es  hverr  (  sUko.  —  S.-G.,  I,  104. 

'  Skirnesmfil,  Stanza  13,  Koster'o  betre  [heldr]  an  at  kliakkva  sC: 

hveims  fuss  es  fara.  — S.-G.,  I,  92. 

*  Op.  cit.,  p.  462 


INTRODUCTION  21 

Vaf/>ru//)iesm^l  has  been  referred  to  above.  Full  of 
wise  answers,  but  dealing  with  particulars,  it  is  notably 
an  exhibition  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  two  wise 
men,  whose  pointed  questions  and  curt  replies  are 
gnomic  in  manner,  yet  not  general  or  "universal" 
in  content,  except  for  the  saying  quoted. 

In  Grimnesmdl,  Odin  figures  again.  After  he  has 
been  tortured  eight  nights  by  King  Geirrod,  the  King's 
son  Agnar  brmgs  him  a  brimming  horn.  Odin  dis- 
courses at  length  and  in  the  course  of  his  recital  of 
old  lore  turns  aside  to  speak  a  few  lines  which  have 
small  bearing  on  the  context : 

"  Yggdrasil's  ash  is  the  best  of  wood, 
But  Skithblatliiiir  of  ships, 
Odin  of  go. Is,  and  Sleipnir  of  steeds, 
Bilrost  of  bridges,  Brage  of  skalds, 
Habrok  of  hawks  and  Garm  of  hounds."  * 

In  the  artificial  character  of  these  lines,  wherein 
proper  names  are  so  arranged  as  to  fit  the  metrical 
scheme,  one  cannot  but  observe  a  resemblance  to  the 
Gnomic  Vei^ses  of  the  Cotton  Manuscript.'^  A  not 
dissimilar  mosaic  of  names  is  found  in  Almssmol. 
The  dwarf  going  in  the  night  to  the  home  of  the  gods 
for  Freya,  who  has  been  promised  him  for  his  wife,  is 
met  by  Thor.  The  god  detains  him  by  asking  ques- 
tions, which  Alviss,  i)roud  of  his  wisdom,  delights 
in  answering.      The  night  passes,  day  dawns,  and 

1  Askr  Yp^'drasels  liann  es  0Ztr  vi)>a, 
cm  Sk(})b'.a|»ner  skipa, 
6b('nii  {isa,  en  joa  Sleipner, 
Iiilros„  brua,  eu  Brage  skalda, 
H;lbr6k  hauka,  en  hunda  Garmr.  — S.-G.,  I,  84. 

»  See  11.  16  ff. 


22  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

the  sun  rises,  its  rays  turning  the  dw?vrf  to  stone. 
But  in  the  meantime,  the  author  of  this  interesting 
narrative  has  found  opportunity  to  display  his  verse- 
craft.  Synonyms  for  earth,  heaven,  fire,  moon,  wood, 
—  these  and  others  are  skilfully  woven  into  the 
rhythmic  pattern. 

Characteristic  of  the  attitude  which  the  Norsemen 
held  toward  their  dead  is  the  story  of  Groa  and  her  son 
Svipdag.  As  a  power  for  good,  Groa  is  called  from  her 
grave  to  counsel,  to  "sing  sweet  and  strong  spell-songs.'' 
One  generalization  on  fate  is  suggested  by  her  son's 
remark  that  he  has  been  appointed  to  make  what 
seems  an  impossible  journey : 

"  Long  is  the  journey,  long  are  the  pathways, 

Long  are  the  loves  of  men : 
Even  if  it  happen  that  you  gain  your  will, 
It  will  be  at  fate's  decree."  ' 

And  the  counterpart  is  found  in  a  later  stanza  of  the 
poem,  or  its  sequel,  when  the  journey  having  been  at 
length  taken,  Svipdag  finds  Mengloth.  Apparently 
recalHng  his  mother's  saying,  he  remarks  : 

"The  word  of  fate  no  man  may  withstand."* 

In  the  TlyndloljoPy  the  prophetess  recalls  the  past 
and  becomes  prophetic,  as  does  the  one  in  Baldrs 
draumar.  A  gnomic  passage  spoken  by  this  sibyl,  who 
was  probably  called  up  from  the  grave  as  in  the  case 
of  Groa  or  the  wise  woman  who  prophesied  for  Bal- 

^  LQng  es  fQr,  langer  'o  farvegar, 

Linger  'o  manna  nmner  ; 
ef  >at  verhr,  at[)>u]>inn  vilja  bljr, 

ok  skeikar  >6  Skuldar  at  skQpom.  — S.-G.,  I,  197. 
'  Ur^ar  or^  YiJ>r  engo  iiia>r.  —  S.-G.,  I,  212. 


INTRODUCTION  23 

der,  is  significant  for  its  resemblance  to  a  passage  in 
Christy^  and  elsewhere  in  Anglo-Saxon  verse.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  giver  is  the  war-father  (Herfo]?r), 
as  the  stanza  immediately  preceding  this  one  clearly 
shows : 

"  He  gives  victory  to  some,  and  to  others  gold, 
Skill  in  words  to  many  and  understanding; 
He  gives  fair  wind  to  men,  and  poetic  art  to  skalds, 
He  gives  valor  to  many  men."  * 

IT6vam6l,  the  poem  wherein  "  human  experience  is 
elevated  to  godly  wisdom,"  ^  contains  three  sections, 
the  first  two  o!  which  treat  of  the  ethics  of  love, 
friendship,  war,  and  hospitality.  Customs  and  social 
laws  here  and  there  agree  with  those  observed  by 
Tacitus,  and  with  those  recorded  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Gnomic  Verses.  In  the  main,  the  precepts  are  archaic 
and  heathen,  though  a  number  are  of  late  origin  and 
Christian.  'To  discuss  these  sayings  would  require  a 
separate  study,  or  a  recapitulation  of  such  a  study  as 
that  made  by  Bergraann.'*  Meyer  calls  attention  to 
speeches  related  to  those  in  other  lays,^  and  Ranisch 
points  out  some  of  the  wise  saws  in  its  repository.^ 
Victor  Nilsson  marks  off  interpolations  which  separate 
LoddfdfnisnL^l   from   the    rest   of    the   poem.'^      Of 

1  See  pp.  53,  63. 

2  Gefr  8igr  sumom,  en  sumora  aura, 
injL'iHko  iD(^rgum  ok  inanvit  firom  ; 
byre  gefr  brfjgnom  eu  brag  skQldom, 
gefr  manseine  mgrgura  rekke.  —  S.-G.,  I,  179. 

»  Cf.  N'ordische  Literatnrgeschichtey  W.  Golther,  Leipzig,  1906,  p.  21. 

*  See  above,  p.  7. 

'  Op.  ciL,  p.  72  ff. 

«  Eddalieder,  Leipzig,  1903,  p.  45  ff. 

'  Loddf iif Ilium Al,  University  of  Minnesota,  1898. 


24  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

stanzas  1-78  he  says :  "  The  keynote  of  the  leading 
theme  is  one  of  bittern  and  fierceness.  The  bits 
of  advice  given  are  in  .^..  nature  of  morals,  but  not 
of  a  Christian  standard.  They  teach  smartness. 
Life  is  depicted  as  a  ceaseless  battle  in  which  every- 
body must  be  on  his  guard,  prepared  to  receive  and  to 
deal  out  blows.  The  redeeming  feature  is  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  sterling  individual  and  of  a  good  posthu- 
mous reputation."  ^ 

In  the  lays  of  the  gods,  wisdom  is  for  the  most 
part  attributed  to  chief  divifiities ;  in  the  Ip.ys  of 
heroes,  to  famous  men,  half  mythical  or  wholly  his- 
torical. 

Toward  the  close  of  G?ipessp6,  Sigurd  remarks, 
"  No  man  can  withstand  his  fate."  ^  Again  and  again 
the  inevitableness  of  fate  appears.  In  Atlamdl, 
Hogni  says,  "  From  his  fate  no  man  can  flee."  ^  It 
is  a  coincidence  striking  enough  that  Jordanes  reports 
Attila  himself  as  using  these  words  in  his  address  to 
the  army  before  the  battle  of  Catalaunian  Plains,  a.d. 
451 :  "  No  spear  shall  harm  those  who  are  sure  to  live; 
and  those  who  are  sure  to  die  fate  overtakes  even  in 
peace"  (Chapter  XXXIX).^  The  words  of  Starkad 
are  to  the  same  effect :  "  His  final  fate  carries  off  every 
living  man  ;  doom  is  not  to  be  averted  by  skulking."  ^ 

1  Loddfafnismdl,  University  of  Minnesota,  1898,  p.  3. 

2  Monat  skQpoin  vinna.  —  S.-G.,  I,  304. 

*  Skopom  viSr  mange.  —  S.-G.,  I,  448. 

*  "  Vicluros  nulla  tela  conveniunt,  morituros  et  in  otio  fata  pnccipi- 
tant." — Jordanis  Jiomana  et  Getica,  llecensuit  Theodoras  Mominsen, 
Berlin,  1882,  p.  111.  Cf.  The  Orvjin  and  Deeds  of  the  Goths,  C.  C.  Mio- 
row,  Princeton,  11)08,  p.  (»3. 

5  Saionis  Granimaticl,  Gesta  Danornm,  herausgegeben  von  Alfred 
Holder,  Stransburg,  1830,  p.  215.     Cf.  Books  I-IX  translated  into  Eng- 


INTRODUCTION  25 

In  the  sequence  lays,  Regensm^ly  Fdfnesnufl,  and 
Sigrdrifom^ly  the  chief  speakers  are  respectively  And- 
vari,  Fafnir,  and  Sigrdrifa,  who,  in  turn,  teach  their 
pupils.  Andvari  admonishes,  "  False  words  against 
another  strike  deep  roots  of  retribution,"  ^  and  a 
little  later  he  asserts  that  it  is  a  bad  thing  to  outrun 
one's  luck.2  Hreidmar,  the  bereaved  father,  also  has 
his  gnomic  fling,  "  Much  is  it  that  necessity  compels," ' 
In  Fdfnesm6l,  particularly  noticeable  are  the  gen- 
eral remarks  which  buttress  the  special  instance. 
Sigurd  thinks  a  cowardly  youth  will  hardly  make  a 
valiant  old  man ;  *  Fafnir  observes  that  they  say  a 
bondman  always  trembles,^  and,  in  turn,  is  capped 
by  Sigurd,  who  suggests  with  apparent  irrelevance, 
"  Every  one  longs  to  enjoy  his  riches  to  the  last 
day."  ^  Fafnir  dies,  didactic  to  the  end,^  a  believer 
in  fate,  like  all  the  others.  Sigurd  has  an  extended 
speech  on  courage,  an  extension  due  to  addition  of 
brief  statements :  "  Courao-e  is  worth  more  than  the 
might;  of  the  sword  when  fearless  men  are  to  fight. 

lish  by  0.  Elton,   London,    1804   [Commentary  by  F.   York  Powell], 
p.  259. 

^  6sa}'ra  or^a  hverra  &  annan  l^gr 

oflenge  leiHi  limar.  —  S.-G.,  I,  309. 
Cf.  II.  Gering'8  Glossary,  1907,  p.  112,  "  weithin  fiihrendie  verzweigvingen 
unwahrer  worue,"  etc. 

2  Ilt's  fyr  heill  at  hrapa.  — ZfciU,  316. 
8  Mart's  )>at3  h^r f  t>ear  !  —  7 bid. ,  3 1 1 . 

*  Fhv  es  hvatr,  es  hrahask  tekr, 

ef  1  barnosko  es  blanl-r.  —  S.-G.,  I,  321. 
•  A6  kve)>a  bandingja  bifask.  —  Ibid. 

9  F6e  r;l)>a  akal  fyrl>a  hverr 
li"  til  ens  eina  dags.  —  Ibid.,  322. 
Cf.  Meyer,  op.  cit.,  p.  457,  who  thinks  this  naive  speech  U  uttered  aa  a 
universal  principle,  without  any  immediate  moral  or  practical  bearing. 
"<  Allt  es  feigs  fora)>,  Ibid.,  322. 


26  GNOJnC  POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 

It  fares  better  in  the  war  game  with  the  bold  man 
than  with  the  coward,  and  better  with  the  glad  man 
than  with  the  timid,  whatever  comes  to  hand."  ^ 

Sigrdrifom6lf  as  it  is  the  third  and  last  of  this 
series,  is  also  the  climax  in  sententious  wisdom  and 
prophetic  power.  The  sleeping  maiden  on  being 
roused  from  slumber  speaks,^  first,  runes  of  various 
things,  —  mind  and  love,  sea  and  victory.  Then  she 
gives  eleven  counsels,  some  of  which  —  for  example, 
the  fifth,  against  alluring  women  —  are  akin  to 
those  in  the  Wise  Father's  Instruction.  The  ninth 
enjoins  care  for  the  dead :  "  At[|)u]n9om  bjarger 
hvars[|)u]ii  foldo  fi))r."  This  injunction  is  similar  to 
the  one  in  the  Exeter  Gnomes  (1.  115),  both  testify- 
ing to  the  importance  of  burial.  Concerning  the 
woes  of  humanity,  a  general  statement  springs  out 
of  the  counsels :  "  Manifold  are  the  troubles  of 
men,"^  a  sentiment  repeated  in  Helreifo  Brynhildar, 
stanza  14. 

AilamSl,  besides  the  sentence  quoted,  has  also  an- 
other of  decided  gnomic  character.  Gudrun  declares 
that  women  suffer  from  men's  tyranny ;  *  and  she  in- 

1  Hugr  es  betre  an[.s6]hJQr8  raegen 
hvars  skolo  vrei)>er  vega  : 
«  •  ' «  «  • 

IIvQtom's  betra  an[8«§]6bvQtom, 
I  bildeleik  bafask  ;  \ 

glyhom's  betra,  an[6d]glvipnanda 
hvats'at  hcnde  komr.  —  S.-G.,  I,  327. 
»  An  iuteresting  example  of  literary  propbecy  occurs  in  Oripeasp^, 
where  Sigurd's  uncle  foretells  tbat  Brunliilde  will  counsel  him.     "  She 
shall  teach  thee  every  mystery  men  wish  to  know,  and  to  speak  in  eveiy 
man's  tongue,  healing  and  leechcraft."  —  S.-G.,  I,  290. 
»  FJQlt.*s  t>ats  fira  tregr.  —  S.-G.,  I,  347. 
♦  Kostom  drepr  kvenna  karla  ofrfke.  —  S.-G.,  I,  456. 


INTRODUCTION  27 

dulges  further  in  a  figurative  proverb,  "The  tree 
must  fall  if  the  root  be  cut."  ^ 

AtlakviPa  has  two  examples  of  reflection  in  the 
poet's  own  person  curiously  like  the  "  So  should  a 
young  man  "  type  in  Beowulf.  The  first  instance  is  in 
stanza  20 :  "  So  should  a  brave  man  defend  himself 
against  his  foes  !  "  ^  said  in  applause  of  Hogni's  deed. 
The  second  is  in  stanza  34  :  "So  shall  a  valiant  hero 
guard  his  gold  from  his  enemies  !  "  '  in  commendation 
of  Gunnar. 

In  IlainAesrnSl,  the  half-brother  Erp  appears  to 
have  liad  a  propensity  for  untimely  quotation  of  old 
saws.  "  It's  ill  work  to  show  cowards  the  way,"  he 
taunts,^  and  for  the  implication  loses  his  life.  Respect 
for  the  aged  and  their  advice  is  indicated  by  a  sen- 
tence of  Ham})er'3,  "  Opt  or  belg  or})gom  boll 
t6])  koma,"  ^  while  Sorli's  contribution  is  to  the  effect 
that  it  is  a  very  sad  lack  if  a  man  lack  wLsdom." 
He  also  speaks  of  the  uselessness  of  fighting  the  de- 
cree of  the  Nonas  :  "  No  man  lives  over  the  evening 
after  the  word  of  fate  has  gone  forth."' 

It  has  already  been  observed  that  the  Norse  as- 
cribed their  wise  sayings  to  gods  and  men  alike. 
The  voha,  or  prophetess,  represents  the  elevation  into 
literature  of  the  divining,  soothsaying  woman,  in 
whom  the  Germans,  according  to  Tacitus,  had  con- 
siderable confidence.     The  gods  are  best  represented 

1  Tr€  tekr  at  linlga,  ef  heggr  tx^gundan.  — S.-G.,  I,  460. 
"^  Sv.-l  ekal  irakn  verjask  fi.^udora  sfnom,  —  S.-G.,  I,  428. 
8  SvA  skal  golle  fn'jkn  hringdrife  vi5  tira  halda.  —  Ibid.,  432, 

*  Ill's  blau|H>m  hal  brauter  kciina.  —  S.-G.,  I,  480. 

•  Ibid.,  483.     Cf.  IV'vavi^l,  Btanza  IS."],  Wanderer,  11.  C4,  05. 
«  Mikcls  es  d.  maun  hvern  vant  es  iiianviLs  es.  —  Ibid.,  484. 

'  Kvcld  lifer  in;;)<r  etke,  cpt  kvi)>  noma.  — /tid.,  485. 


28  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON" 

by  Odin,  whose  growth  in  gnomic  expression  may  be 
traced  by  his  successive  exploitations,  from  his  visits 
to  the  vqlva,  where  he  goes  to  seek  wisdom.  Ncr  is 
the  dwarf  to  be  disregarded.  Alviss  by  his  name 
bears  evidence  that  knowledge  was  associated  with 
dwarfish  stature.^  Among  the  heroic  figures,  women 
are  notably  expounders  of  cryptic  remarks,  runic 
sayings,  and  gnomic  advice :  witness  Gudrun  and 
Brunliilde  ;  in  a  lesser  degree,  male  figures  —  Fafnir, 
Hreidmar,  and  Sigurd,  for  example  —  become  the 
mouthpieces  of  wisdom.  Graybeards,  as  the  poems 
here  and  there  testify,  were  held  worthy  of  respect : 
some  of  the  most  didactic  portions  of  the  Ilovavibl, 
exclusive  of  the  lessons  of  Loddfdfnir,  illustrative  of 
the  same  thing,  seem  to  be  lessons  or  advice  given 
to  young  men  by  their  old  tutors.  Finally,  as  may 
have  been  noticed  above,  the  poet  sometimes  speaks 
in  his  own  person. 

Most  of  these  speeches,  then,  fall  imder  the  follow- 
ing heads : 

1.  Fate  {Grooyaldr,  GrlpesspQ,  IlampL-smQl). 

2.  Circumspection  in  speech  {Vafpru/^nesiiiQl,  Regensml^l). 

3.  Woes  of  men  {Reyens/nQl,  Sufnlrifoniql,  Ublrei/>  Bryn- 
hildar. 

4.  Courage  and  cowardice  {Fdfnesm'nl,  Atlakvi^a,  Hamp&s- 
mql). 

5.  Women  {Sigrdrifom'jl,  AtlaniQl). 

6.  Wisdom  of  the  old  {Uamfoesm<il,  Ui^vamql). 

A  complete  study  would  reveal  a  fuller  list,  but 
this   is   illustrative   of    Norse   characteristics.      The 

1  It  will  be  remembered  that  among  the  folk  of  the  present  day  the 
belief  is  common  that  dwarfs  and  hunchbacks  are  possessed  of  extraor- 
dinary intellect. 


TNTRODUCTION  29 

Norseman  preached  prudence,  he  scorned  cowardice 
and  exalted  couiage,  he  was  oppressed  by  a  sense 
of  the  miseries  of  life  and  the  inevitableness  of 
fate.  . 

Before  speaking  of  the  preservation  of  gnomic 
verses  in  Old  Norse,  it  will  be  best  to  consider  their 
appearance  in  the  West  Germanic  literature  as  repre- 
sented by  Anglo-Saxon. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  epic  and  lyric  of  oldest  origin, 
verses  of  gnomic  import,  if  not  always  of  gnomic 
length,  are  frequent.  Their  presence  has  been  at 
times  regarded  as  an  element  disturbing  the  unity  of 
the  epic  lay,  though  with  light  thrown  from  shorter 
poems,  into  which  they  are  likewise  interjected,  it 
seems  clear  that  they  were  not  held  to  be  irrelevant 
at  the  time  of  their  inclusion ;  unless,  indeed,  the 
unity  of  even  the  shortest  poems  be  contested.  Even 
if  the  poems  are,  in  some  instances,  composite,  it 
shows  that  the  compiler  felt  gnomic  verse  might  be 
blended  with  other  Uxatter. 

In  Beoundfy  I  classify  the  following  lines  and 
groups  of  lines  as  gnomic  divagations,  apart  from  the 
current  of  the  story  :  >  20-25  :  1836-188  ;  2876-289  ; 
4406-441;  4556;  5726-573;  9316-932;  10036- 
1004;  10586-1063;  13856-1390;  15356-1537; 
16646-lGG5a;  18396-1840;  19416-1944;  20306- 
2032;  21676-2170a;  2292-2294a;  26016-2602; 
27056-2767;  28916-2892;  30636-3066;  3078- 
3079;   31766-3179. 

Of  these  gnomic  passages,  most  are  heathen ;  some 
are  mixed  with  Christian  sentiments,  as  if  the  author 

*  Numbering  of  Ueyue-Sociii  text,  ed.  L.  SchUcking,  raderbom,  1908. 


30  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

had  turned  old  matter  to  new  purposes ;  one  or  two 
may  be  entirely  Christian.  In  some  cases,  it  is  im- 
possible to  separate  the  two  elements.  A  writer  who 
had  at  his  command  a  wealth  of  heathen  lay  material 
and  who  was  famihar  also  with  the  teachings  of 
Christianity  designed  for  them  no  separate  compart- 
ments in  building  his  epic  poem.  Heathen  and 
Christian  wisdom  appear  now  in  harmony,  again  in 
slight  conflict. 

The  first  passage,  an  adhortation  of  the  familiar 
sceal  tj'pe,  is  paralleled  elsewhere  in  Anglo-Saxon,^ 
and  the  thought  is  of  high  antiquity : 

20  Swa  sceal  geong  {/uma  gode  gewyrcean, 

fromum  feoh-giftuin  on  fseder  terne, 
})set  hine  on  ylde  eft  gewuuigcn 
wil-gesi(5as,  f'onne  wig  cume, 
leode  gelSsten.     Lof-diedum  sceal 
in  mSgSa  geliwawi  man  gepOon. 

Saxo's  praise  of  Sciold  enumerates  a  list  of  deeds 
similar  to  these,'^  deeds  the  celebration  of  which  later 
descended  to  a  commonplace  in  chivalric  romance : 
The  prince  must  win  to  his  banner  good  knights  by 
his  bounty.     So  in  Guy  of  Wanvick,  we  read : 

Good  knyghtis  he  loued  ywis, 
And  freely  he  gaue  thera  of  hys, 
Therfore  wel  belouyd  he  was. 

Because  the  passage  has  no  immediate  connection 
with  the  context,  Sievers  suggested  a  hiatus  between 

1  Gn.  C,  14. 

2  "  He  contended  .  .  .  with  all  other  monarchs  in  courage,  i)Ounty,  and 
generous  dealing  ...  He  used  to  enrich  his  nobles  not  only  with  home 
taxes,  but  also  with  plunder  taken  in  war ;  being  wont  to  aver  that  the 
prize  money  shouldflow  to  the  soldiers,  and  the  glory  to  the  geaeitil." 
See  York  Powell,  p."l8  ;  Holder,  p.  12. 


INTRODUCTION  31 

lines  19  and  20.  Mullenhoff  ^  cited  it  as  one  of  the 
moralizing  asides  which  break  up  the  unity  of  the 
poem,'^  and  remarked  of  it,  that  it  is  a  generalization 
of  political  import.  Haeuschkel,'^  in  commenting 
upon  the  fact  that  the  introduction  of  sentences 
often  appears  awkward  and  forced,  cites  this  passage 
as  an  example. 

Miilleuhoff,  intent  upon  his  separate  ballad  theory, 
perhaps  unconsciously  stretched  a  critical  conscience 
to  make  these  generalizations  examples  of  the  irrele- 
vant ;  or  perhaps  he  was  momentarily  forgetful  of 
their  accustomed  presence  in  the  old  literature. 
Others,  as  for  instance  Sievers  and  Kcihler,  in  looking 
for  a  unity  too  perfect,  were  unmindful  of  the  fact 
that  the  Germanic  poet  often  turns  aside  to  point  a 
moral  and  thereby  adorn  his  material.  Such  a  say- 
ing is  irrelevant  in  the  sense  that  it  is  a  generaliza- 
tion, which,  though  possibly  called  to  mind  by  a 
particular  circumstance  or  concrete  situation,  yet 
stands  alone,  independent;  but  it  is  not  hrelevant 
with  respect  to  the  large  unity  of  the  early  epic, 
which  was  ample  and  inclusive.  Digressions  have 
many  times  been  observed  to  be  features  of  the  epic 
style,  and  the  irrelevancies  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  are 
merely  in.^ lances  of  such  episodic  character. 

Of  the  same  type  as  20-25,  are  15356-1537,  and 
21G76-2170a.  Just  as  Scyld's  acquitting  himself 
well  produces  the  generalization  that  so  ought  a 
young  man  to  do,  Beowulf's  trusting  to  his  strength 

1  Die  Innere  Oeschichte  des  Beovulfs,  in  Zeit.  f.  d.  A.,  n.  s.,  II,  195. 

2  A  criticism,  it  need  hardly  bo  noted,  now  in  disrepute. 

«  Die  Tcch)xik  der  Erzahlung  im  Beowuljliede,  Breslau,  1904,  p.  63. 


32  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

of  hand  in  the  conflict  with  Grendel's  mother  induces 
the  observation : 

15356  Swa  sceal  man  d5an, 

J>onne  h6  set  giiSe  gegan  JienceS 
longsumne  lof,  iia  yinb  his  Iif  cearatJ. 

and  likewise  the  recital  of  Beowulf's  gifts  to  Hygelao 
affords  opportunity  for  the  comment : 

'  21676  Swa  sceal  mii'g  doan, 

nealles  inwit-net  oSrum  bregdon, 
dyrnum  crsefte  deaS  renian 
hond-gesteallan. 

Lines  similar  to  these  have  been  quoted  above  as 
forming  part  of  the  Old  Norse  gnomology.  Gnomes 
of  this  type  Earle  ^  characterized  as  "  Monitory  Pas- 
sages," seeing  in  them  a  "  clue  to  the  secret  history 
of  the  poem  "  which  he  designates  as  "  The  Institu- 
tion of  a  Prince."  He  is  echoed  by  Brandl,  who 
calls  Beoionlf  a  sort  of  mirror  for  princes.^  And  a 
more  recent  critic  sees  an  immediate  application  m 
this  particular  moralizing :  "  Such  comment  seems 
harsh  J  and  the  allusion  to  treachery  uncalled  for, 
until  we  notice  v:hat  that  present  is  which  Beowulf 
has  just  given  to  his  lord.  It  is  a  war-panoply,  which 
of  old  belonged  to  Hrothgar's  brother,  King  Heoro- 
gar,  but  which  has  7iot  been  given  to  Heoroweard, 
Heorogar's  son.  No :  the  armor  has  been  given  to 
Beowulf  the  stranger,  and  Heoroweard  has  been  de- 
prived of  his  father's  weapons."  ^ 

1  Tlic  Deeds  of  Beowulf,  J.  Earle,  Oxford,  1802,  p.  Ixxv  ff. 

2  —  "kein  anderes  erziihlungswerk  wcder  ein  weltliches  noch  ein  geist- 
licbes.  kommt  eineiu  fiirstcnspiegel  so  nalie."  —  op.  cit.,  p.  1001. 

.  »  Wiihith,  R.  W.  Chambers,  Cambridge,  1J12,  p.  83. 


INTRODUCTION  33 

But  here  and  elsewhere  in  Beowulf,^  as  in  the  lays 
of  the  Edda,  these  asides  are,  I  think,  commonplace 
generalizations,  though  they  doubtless  took  their 
special  coloring  from  the  particular  time  and  place. 
That  they  were  uttered  as  particular  exhortations  or 
with  any  thought  that  the  princely  circle  needed  to 
profit  by  them,  I  doubt.  They  had  become  conven- 
tional stop-gaps  or  roundings  of  periods.  A  single 
instance  is  perhaps  to  be  regarded  as  a  definite  per- 
sonal hint  to  Hrothgar  concerning  the  boy,  Hrethric : 

18396  Feor-cyt53e  beo« 

selran  gesohte  JJiSm-j^e  him  selfa  deah. 

It  is  the  close  of  Beowulf's  leave-taking  speech,  wherein 
he  has  just  suggested  that  Hrethric  would  find  friends 
at  the  court  of  the  Geats.  I  say  perhaps  ;  for  I  sus- 
pect, rather,  that  Beowulf  was  finishing  off  his  invi- 
tation by  the  statement  of  a  truth  as  well  known  to 
Hrothgar  as  to  himself.^ 

Lines  183-188  may  be  regarded  as  a  "  terminal 
moral "  akin  tc  that  at  the  end  of  the  Cotton  Grnomes^ 
and  elsewhere.  Such  moralizings  or  religious  adhorta- 
tions  bear  evidence  of  later  origin  bv  their  Christian 
doctrine.  Ettmiiller  first  made  179-185  the  close 
of  a  fytte,  a  view  in  which  Miillenhoif  coincided, 
characterizing  the  passage  as  "  ganz  theologisch." 
So  Blackburn,  attempting  to  separate  Christian  and 

^Cf.  also  \Vi(hith,  11-13.     sceal  beodiia  gehu^lc  Rawum  lifgan, 

eorl  after  OSruui  CSle  raidan, 
Be  \>e.  his  heodenstol  get>6on  wile  ! 

2 The  custom  of  sending  sons  to  win  their  spurs  in  foreign  coantries 
was  practised  long  in  England. 

»  See  p.  129. 


34  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

heathen  sentiment,  thinks  it  to  be  an  interpolation.* 
According  to  the  opinion,  however,  that  Beowulf  is  a 
unified  whole,  the  work  of  a  poet  familiar  no  less  with 
Christian  than  with  heathen  beliefs,  this  passage  is 
simply  to  be  regarded  as  arising  out  of  the  later  time 
and  religion.  "  The  Beowulf  poet  was  subject  to 
various  influences,"  Klaeber  concludes  in  his  series  of 
excellent  articles  on  Tlie  Christian  Elements  in  Beonmlf, 
"he  was  a  Widsith  or  Saxo  in  legendary  lore,  at  the 
same  time  he  was  an  ecclesiastically  educated  man,  a 
sensitive  character,  and  an  incomparable  artist  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons."  2 

In  lines  4406-441  a  Christian  gnome  is  apparent. 
"  He  whom  death  taketh  shall  resign  himself  to  the 
doom  of  the  Lord"  seems  quite  modern.  But  I  be- 
lieve with  Gummere  ^  that  the  old  "  goes  Wyrd  as  she 
must"  is  in  the  background,  —  a  thought  which  ap- 
pears almost  immediately  in  455Z>.  Moreover,  Black- 
burn groups  the  saying  with  other  passages  that  show 
Christian  colorino;  bv  "incidental  allusions  to  God  and 
his  power." ^  These  mixed  gnomes  are:  440Z>-441, 
930-931,  105G  11.,  1661  ff.,  2292-2294a.  He  makes 
out  a  case  for  transference  from  heathen  to  Christian 
thought  on  the  ground  that  Christianity  is  vague  and 
colorless  in  these  passages,  as  will  be  seen  if  we  sub- 
stitute Fate  for  God.  "  The  moral  sentiment  remains, 
but  it  is  no  longer  a  Christian  sentiment.  .  .  .     We 

1  TMLA.,  XII,  22. 

^Anglia,  XXXV(n.  f.  XXHI),  pp.  Ill  ff.,  240  ff.,  453  ff.,  and  XXXVI, 
pp.  171  fl.  Die  Christlichen  Elememe  im  Beowulf.  See  these  pages, 
passim,  for  comparison  of  sundry  gnomic  passages  with  similar  ones  in 
Beoivulf. 

8  OEE.,  p.  42. 

*  Op.  ciC,  p.  210  ff. 


INTRODUCTION  85 

may  assume  the  existence  of  an  older  poem  composed 
by  a  heathen  scop  and  containing  moral  sentiments 
and  reflections  of  the  same  character  as  those  of  Homer 
or  Virgil  or  tlie  Edda.  Later,  a  Christian  monk 
*  edits '  it  for  Christian  readers."  ^  The  value  of  this 
classification  is  not  affected  by  the  point  of  view  that 
regards  the  passages  as  the  work  of  a  poet  subject 
alike  to  Christian  and  heathen  influence.  That  is  to 
say,  the  "  mixed  "  character  remains,  whether  original 
heathen  sayings  have  been  "  edited  "  or  the  lines  were 
composed  by  a  poet  to  v;hom  God  was  Lord  of  fate.' 
Haeuschkel  is  also  of  the  opinion  that  930-931, 
16646-lG65a,  3056,  and  the  inevitable  1836-188  are 
of  Christian  character.^ 

I  see  only  a  Christian  sentiment  in  9316-932  :  — 

a  mseg  god  wyrcan 
wunder  aefter  wuudre,  wuldres  hyrde! 

Fate  does  not  work  wonders,  nor  is  ivuldres  hyrde  a 
heathen  figure.  The  case,  however,  is  different  with 
1058-1063,  where  the  parts  may  be  separated : 

10586-1059  Metod  eallum  weold 

gumena  cynnes,  swa  he  nu  git  doeS, 

is  Christian.  But  1060-1061a  is  a  thought  occurring 
in  heathen  passages  :  * 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  217. 

"Cf.  Klaeber,  "  Vorherrschend  christlich  iat  Uberhaupt  .  .  .  die  ganze 
tonart  und  siitenanschauung.  Wir  sind  iiicht  mehr  in  heidnischer  atmos- 
phare."  —  Op.  cit.,  XXXVI,  175. 

»  Op.  cit.,  p.  ^i'^. 

*Cf.  II{)vamil,  stanza  6,  and  passim,  and  Wander''.r,  116-14.  It  la 
Blinilar  also  to  a  sentence  in  Maxims  (Exeter  Book,  122a),  hyge  freste 
bind  mid  modsefan  (Z?i6.,  II,  280),  which,  though  occurring  in  a  small 
group  of  Christian  sayings,  has  a  heathen  ring. 


36  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

ForJ)an  bi?5  andgit  ffighwaer  sClest, 
ferhSes  fore-))anc. 

And  it  may  wery  well  have  been  retained  from  an 
older  portion,  which,  however,  suffered  the  addition 
of  1058-1059.  10G16-10G3  may  itself  be  of  ancient 
origin,  like  the  "  Manifold  are  the  woes  of  men  "  sen- 
tences referred  to  above ;  but  it  rings  rather  like  a 
late  homiletic  close : 

Fela  sceal  gebldan 
leofes  Olid  lat5es,  s6  \>e  longe  her 
on  )»yssum  win-dagum  worolde  brflceS. 

Earle  ^  holds  that  the  passage  was  formerly  heathen 
but  was  corrected  by  loUig  (jod  (1057).  He  aees 
Providence  and  fate  not  opposed,  but  harmonized  by 
subordination  of  the  latter,  and  recognizes  a  mind  fed 
upon  De  Comolatlone,  IV,  6  ff.^ 

1664^-1665a  oftost  wisode 
winigea  leasum 

is  part  of  a  Christian  thought,  referring  as  it  does  to 
ylda  waldend  in  1662.  I  cannot  accept  it  as  "mixed  "  ; 
for  the  substitution  of  fate  is  inapt  (cf.  931,  above). 
Bugge^  emends  the  line  unnecessarily  by  a  textual 
change  which  makes  it  particular  instead  of  general. 

2292-2294tt     Swa  msDg  unfSge  CaCe  gedigan 

wean  ond  wnuc-slS,  se  })e  waldendes 
hyldo  gehealdeS 

seems  to  be  a  distinct  Christianizing  of  the  heathen 
expression  found  in  5726-573  : 

»  Op.  cit.,  p.  144. 

2Cf.  Klaeber,  op.  cit.,  XXXVI,  176. 

»  Quoted  by  Scliiickiug,  op.  cit.,  p.  115,  q.v. 


INTRODUCTION  37 

Wyrd  oft  neretJ 
Unf»gne  eorl,  }>onne  his  ellen  deah ! 

a  Germanic  commonplace'  spoken  by  Beowulf  in 
recounting  his  shimming  match  with  Breca,  a  proto- 
type of  the  more  modern  "  God  helps  those  that  help 
themselves."  Cook  '^  thinks  its  origin  lies  in  the  Latin 
original  of  "  Fortune  favors  the  brave."  But  since 
the  passage  occurs  in  part  in  the  Il'ddehrand  Lay  (1.  55) 
and  occasionally  in  Old  Norse,"'  I  see  no  reason  for 
seeking  origins  outside  the  Germanic  group,  even 
though  among  the  next  of  kin.  It  is  rather,  I  think, 
analogic,  —  one  of  a  number  of  kindred  thoughts  aris- 
ing among  tribes  widely  separated.  In  its  juxtapo- 
sition of  fate  and  courage,  the  passage  is  paralleled 
in  1056  ff. 

The  limitations  of  Fate  in  455??,  "  GceS  a  "Wyrd 
swa  hio  seel !  "  would  appear  to  be  somewhat  in  con- 
trast with  the  idea  that  she  may  fa^'or  a  brave  man. 
But  Wyrd  is  thought  of  as  two  different  forces  or 
powers  in  the  two  passages  4556  and  572  ff.,  which 
may  be  taken  as  exemplars  of  the  fact  that  conceptions 
of  Fate  were  not  consistent."*  In  the  former  her  blind- 
ness is  emphasized,  Fate  bound  by  necessity ;  in  the 

'  GniiuUvig  Bays  the  leading  idea  of  the  Bjarkim'^l  is  the  same  aa  that 
found  in  Beoicnlf^  Ab.y,  572.  Udniijl,  p.  &2,  referred  to  by  Meyer,  op.  cit., 
p.  45(5,  who  remarks  :  "-diese  erkenntnis  ist  der  eii^eutliche  grundstein 
allererkenntnis  des  volks  liberall  f,'e\vosen.  Wie  GuiSrun  spricht,  *8kopum 
viSr  mannj;!,'  so  siii^t  lloktor:  'jMor^aK  S'oCWivi  ^tjm'  ir«pvftxivov  ^f^itvai 
B.vbpCiv:  "   (7^.,  (5,  488.)     Cf.  also  Germanic.  Origins,  p.  2.30  ff. 

^  MLN.,  VlII,  117-118,  q.v.,  for  list  of  citations  from  Latin  classics, 
ulndreas  4o8-l(J0  is  a  Christianized  form,  also,  of  Beowtilf  b'2. 

8  Cf.  OEE.,  pp.  47-48,  note. 

*Cf.  Klaeber,  op.  cit.,  XXXVI,  172,  and  note.  He  notes  that  in 
JBeoxoulf,  3U31,  loyrda  ni,  toorda.  the  significance  of  xcyrd  is  "  ganz  abge- 
Bchwacht." 


38  GNOMIC   POETRY   EN  ANGLO-SAXON 

latter  her  personality  has  faded,  chance  or  fortune 
being  indicated  as  in  modem  speech.' 

In  age,  13856-1390a  rivals  4556  and  5*^2  ff.  It  is 
proverbial,  Meyer  thinks,'^  like  the  former ;  it  is  anal- 
ogous to  other  ancient  sayings,  like  the  latter.  It  i? 
the  Anglo-Saxon  representative  of  the  custom  refeiTed 
to  by  Tacitus,'^  and  has  a  close  parallel  in  Ilbvambly 
stanza  TT."*  It  is  not  quite  identical  with  jEneid,  X, 
467  ft'., '^  nor  is  there  any  reason  for  regarding  the 
Latin  as  the  sole  orio-inal  of  what  must  have  been  a 

O 

universal  heathen  belief.  I  have  spoken  of  the  pas- 
sage as  a  unit ;  yet  it  contains  three  separate  gnomes 
bound  logically  together : 

13856  Scire  bitS  teghwiem, 

]>?et  he  his  fiGond  wrece,  ponne  h6  fela  murue. 
Ure  ieghwylc  sceal  ende  gebldan 
worolde  lifes;  wyrce  se  pe  mote 
domes  ier  deaSe  !     pset  biS  driht-guman 
uulifgendum  eefter  s6lest. 

With  the  first  line  and  a  half  should  be  compared 
Byrhtnoth  : 

258-259  Ne  raneg  nd,  wandian,  s6  )>e  wrecan  ))encet5 

frean  on  folce,  ne  for  fGore  murnan  I  ' 

^  OEE.,  p.  43,  note.    The  word  in  455  may  have  the  force  of  "  destiny." 
Meyer,  op.  cit.,  455,  thinks  this  line  is  an  ancient  proverb.     It  is  probable, 
therefore,  that  Wyrd  is  spoken  of  with  small  vestige  of  the  old  feeling  for 
the  word.     Cf.  preceding  not«. 
2  Op.  cit.,  p.  450. 

«  Cf.  Introduction  (p.  18),  Gn.  Ex.  81,  and  Klaeber,  •»  Unchristlich  ist 
der  preis  des  nachriihins." —  Op.  cic,  XXXVI,  173. 

*  Ek  veit  einn  at  aldre  deyr  : 

domr  umb  dau)>:in  hvern.  —  S.-G.,  I,  37, 
5  Slat  "sua  cuique  dies  ;  breve  et  irreparabile  tempos 
Omnibus  est  vitse  ;  sed  famam  extendere  factis, 
Hoc  virtutis  opus. 
«  Bib.,  I,  309-370. 


INTRODUCTION  89 

and   with   Seafarer ^   72-80a,   whicli   from    analysis 
would  appear  to  be  a  revamping  of  this  or  a  similar 


heathen  passage : 


For|)on  paet  eorla  gehwam  aeftercweSendra 

lof  llfgendra,  lastworda  betst, 

\dii  li6  gew  V  rce,  iur  h6  on  weg  scyle, 

freniman  on  foldan  wi5  feonda  nl)> 

deorum  diedum  dCofle  togCanes, 

pcet  hine  slda  beam  jefter  hergen 

and  his  lof  si)»)>aii  lifge  mid  englum 

awa  to  ealdre,  6cau  llfes  blierf, 

dream  mid  duge}>ura  !  * 

In  the  heathen  group,  we  observe  that  (1)  death  is 
inevitable ;  (2)  therefore,  win  glory,  (3)  which  is 
worthiest.  In  the  later  revision,  we  find  that  (1)  death 
is  inevitable ;  (2)  therefore,  work  against  hatred  of 
foes  and  the  devil  and  win  praise,  (3)  which  is  best. 
(4)  Men  will  praise  (such  a  man)  whose  fame  will 
live  forever.  Tiie  loss  of  brevity  and  pithiness  with 
the  corresponding  gain  in  didacticism  weakens  the 
value  of  the  Christian  passage.  In  the  oldest  poem, 
Widsithy  a  brief  and  pointed  estimate  of  him  who  wins 
glory  closes  the  recital : 

1426  lof  85  gewyrce?5, 

hafat5  under  heofonum  heahfaestne  d6m. 

"The  chief  object  v/hich  the  characters  of  the 
heroic  age  set  before  themselves  is  to  *  win  glory,'  to 
have  their  fame  celebrated  for  all  time,"  says  Chad- 
wick,'^  who  has  collected  a  number  of  passages  in 
illustration  of  this  assertion.  He  observes  that  one 
of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  heroic  poetry, 

1  Bib.,  I,  293.  »  Heroic  Age,  Cambridge,  1912,  p.  88. 


40  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

both  Greek  and  Teutonic,  is  the  constantly  expressed 
thirst  for  fame.  Odysseus  himself  says  his  glory 
reaches  to  heaven,  and  Beowulf's  fame  is  spoken  of 
even  more  extravagantly,  as  lines  856  if.  indicate. 
The  love  of  glory  is  held  as  an  incitement  to  bravery 
in  critical  situations,  as  in  Waldere,  I,  8  ff.* 

The  remaining  expressions  deserve  here  no  partic- 
ular comment.  They  are,  I  believe,  without  excep- 
tion of  heathen  origin."  In  making  this  statement, 
I  am  not  unmindful  of  the  truth  that,  in  general,,  it  is 
difficult,  if  not  useless,  to  attempt  separation  of 
heathen  and  Christian  streams  contributing:  to  the 
current  of  early  Anglo-Saxon  epic.''  In  some  cases, 
as  I  have  already  said,  it  is  impossible  to  affirm  that 
a  maxim  is  Teutonic  or  that  it  is  scriptural.  But  in 
other  cases,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  seeing  indications 
of  definite  source. 

In  reviewing  the  characteristics  of  these  passages 
aside  from  their  heathen  or  Christian  nature,  we  find 
that  they  may  be  tabulated  in  content  approximately 
as  follows :  ^ 

1.  They  encourage  laudable  deeds:  20-25,  1385^-1390, 
15356-1537,  18396-1840,  20306-2032,  28916-2892 ; 

2.  Liberality:  20-25; 

1  Cf.  Heroic  Age,  p.  325  ff. 

2  28015-2S02  Meyer  thinks  is  a  proverb,  —  "eine  uralte  lehre."  — 
Op.  cit.,  p.  4;V).  And  Klaeber  notes  its  resemblance  to  a  passage  in 
Iphifjenia  Aulidis  (1252)  of  Euripides.— Op  cit.,  XXXVI,  173, 

»  "  The  futility  of  attemptine;  to  separate  Christian  and  heathen  con- 
ceptions in  that  poem  [Beowulf]  is  now  well  recognized,  Professor  Brand! 
having  been  one  of  the  foremost  to  adopt  that  view."  —  W.  W.  Lawrence, 
The  SoH'j  of  Dear,  \n  M.  Ph.,  IX,  1,  27. 

♦  Cf.  Sarrazin,  neoicnlf-Shulien,  Berlin,  1888,  p.  70  ff.,  whom  I  follow 
in  part.  His  list,  however,  is  not  so  full  as  the  one  here  given.  Ilaeusch- 
kel,  op.  cit.,  p.  C3,  practically  copies  Sarrazin. 


INTRODUCTION  41 

3.  Prudence,  wisdom:  2876-289,  106(>-1061a; 

4.  Confidence  in  God  or  Fate:  4406-441,  5726-573,  931  i^ 
932,  10586  ff.,  16646-1665a,  2292-2294a. 

5.  They  warn  against  treachery  of  women :  19416-1944 ; 

6.  Treachery  of  kindred :  21676-2170a  (cf.  26016-2602). 

7.  They  commemorate  inevitable  death:  1836-188,  10036- 
1004,  13856-1390,  28016-2892,  30836-3006,  31766^179. 

Classified  with  reference  to  the  speakers,  the  follow- 
ing reflections  are  uttered  by  the  poet,  as  he  turns 
aside  from  the  main  channel  of  his  narrative :  20-25, 
1836-188,  100rj7)-]004,  10586-1063,  15356-1537, 
19416-1944, 21676-2170a, 26016-2602,27656-2767,1 
30636-3066,  31766  If.  The  following  are  spoken 
by  Beowulf:  455,  5726-573,  13856-1390,  16646- 
1665a,  18396-1840,  20306-2032.  From  the  shore- 
guard,  proceeds  2876-289;  from  Wiglaf,  28916-2892, 
3078-3079.  It  is  noticeable  that  until  Beowulf's 
death,  only  one  gnome  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  any 
other  character.^  After  the  hero's  death,  Wiglaf  suc- 
ceeds him  as  speaker  of  wise  sayings. 

Of  these  speeches,  the  oldest  are  characterized  by 
"  oft  "  or  "  selre."  ^  "  Sceal  "  is  more  didactic,  like- 
wise "moeg";  often  the  mere  statement  lodged  in 
"bis"  etc.,  takes  the  place  of  the  hortatory  form. 
Combinations  occur  :  "swii  sceal,"  "  swa  biS."  Under 
one  of  these  heads  fall  the  greater  number  of  Beowulf 
gnomes.* 

As  in  the  epic,  so  in  the  early  lyi'ics,  gnomes  and 

1  Haeuschkel,  who  aiakes  a  single  division,  op.  cit.,  p.  62,  errs  ia  plac- 
ing 2705  under  the  alteniale  head.     He  omits  3176  ff. 

2  981/>-<)32,  said  by  llrothgar. 
'  Cf.  Mt'j'er,  op.  cit.,  p.  455. 

*  I  do  not  take  up  1725  f!.,  nor  2445  ff.,  for  both,  though  akin  to  the 
passages  treated,  are  of  different  character. 


42  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-«AXON 

gnomic  sayings  are  imbedded.  And  just  as  in  the  epic 
their  presence  has  been  taken  to  uphold  the  argument 
for  separate  composition,  so  in  the  lyrics  they  are 
regarded  by  some  critics  as  intruders,  interpolations 
by  those  convenient  "later  scribes." 

The  Wa7ide7'er  ^  shows  vigorous  sententious  pro- 
clivity. Although  the  introduction  is  recognized  as 
Christian,  it  breaks  off  at  5a,  following  which  bh  is 
unquestionably  heathen:  "  "\Yyrd  biS  ful  arced!^" 
And  though  the  close  112a-115  is  a  late  homiletic 
addition  (cf.  Gn.  C.  conclusion,  p.  129),  the  poem 
throughout  is  imbued  with  pagan  sentiment. 

116-18  comprise  a  group  of  gnomes,  all  arising 
from  the  Wanderer's  contemplation  of  his  own  posi- 
tion, but  universal  in  their  bearing.  116-14  commend 
caution  in  betraying  thought, 

Ic  to  soSe  wat, 
]>xt  bi(5  on  eorle  indryliten  }>eaw, 
]>cet  he  his  fert5locan  feste  binde, 

a  sentiment,  which  though  lacking  parallelism  of  ex- 
pression, is  of  the  same  type  as  Beowulf,  1060-1061a. 
15  and  16  are  grammatically  joined,  but  in  reality 
comprise  two  sentences : 

ne  maeg  werig  mod  wyrde  AviSstondan 
ne  se  hreo  hyge  helpe  gefreraman. 

The  first  of  these  offers  a  variation  of  Beowulf,  572. 
The  second  is  a  thought  not  found  elsewhere  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  gnomology. 

17-18  forJ>on  domgeorne  drSorigne  oft 

in  hyra  breostcofan  bindat5  freste 

i  £ib.,  I,  284.  2  On  arSld,  cf.  Gn.  Ex.,  195,  note. 


INTRODUCTION  48 

is  likewise  a  thought  which  has  found  expression  more 
often  in  later  literature  than  in  Anglo-Saxon  verse. 
The  next  generalization  is  of  a  familiar  kind,^  296-31: 

Wat  s6  J»e  cunnaS 
htl  sll<5en  bi8  3org  to  geffiran 
]>^m  ]>e  him  lyt  hafaS  leofra  geholena. 

64-65a  echoes  the  proverb  already  observed  in  the 
Old  Norse  Hamfiesmbl : 

forf'on  ne  maeg  weort5an  wis  wer,  aer  h6  age 
w intra  dSl  in  woruldrlce. 

In  65&-69,  we  have  a  series  of  attributes  belonging 
to  the  wise  man,  wherein  moderation  is  discernible 
as  the  happy  mean  : 

Wita  sceal  ge]>y\dig, 
ne  sceal  no  to  hatheort  ne  to  hraedwyrde 
ne  to  wac  wiga  ne  to  wanhydig 
ne  to  forht  ne  to  fsegen  ne  to  feohgifre 
ne  nS.^re  gielpes  to  georn,  ffir  he  geare  cunne.' 

The  caution  against  boasting  is  continued  in  70-72 : 

Beorn  sceal  gebldan,  })onne  h6  beot  spricetJ 
06  J)aet  collenferf-  cunne  gearwe, 
hwiuer  hreSia  gehygd  hweorfan  wille. 

And  the  passage  on  the  wise  man  is  concluded  with 
73-74,  which  suggest  that  he  can  understand  how 
terrible  will  be  the  destruction  of  the  world.  It  is 
to  be  observed  that  the  Day  of  Judgment  is  referred 
to  in  no  churchly  manner :  if  the  lines  were  the  work 

1  The  essentially  early  tone  of  sucL  sentences  is  noted  in  introduc- 
tion to  Gn.  Ex.     See  p.  94. 

*  King  Cormac  gives  similar  advice  to  Carbre  ;  of.  K.  Meyer,  op.  eit., 
p.  44. 


44  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

of  an  interpolator,  he  would  hardly  have  missed  the 
oppoi-tunity  to  celebrate  it  in  true  orthodox  fashion. 
Of  the  gnomes  in  58-87,  Boer^  observes  a  close 
relationship  with  the  Exeter  Gnomes.  Boer's  reasons 
for  assuming  interpolation  of  the  entire  passage  are 
weak.  There  is  no  occasion  for  considering  them 
here,  since  they  have  already  been  answered  by  Law- 
rence,- and  since,  moreover,  the  full  passage  lies  out- 
side the  scope  of  this  study.  Lawrence  in  meeting 
Boer's  contention  that  the  "spriiche"  disturb  the 
narrative  says  :  ^  "  Consider  the  pronounced  fondness 
of  the  Saxons  for  moralizinor  and  for  gnomic  material 
in  general.  This  was  not  a  literary  fashion  intro- 
duced with  Christianity,  its  roots  lie  deep  in  heathen 
antiquity.  The  gnomic  poetry  of  other  peoples  is  as 
a  rule  of  ancient  date.  It  was  characteristic  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  thought  to  connect  the  particular  and  the  gen- 
eral, to  make  a  man's  experiences  point  a  moral  as 
well  as  adorn  a  tale.  The  Saxon  in  misfortune  found 
consolation  in  philosophy  long  before  King  Alfred 
translated  Boethius.  Deor's  refrain  Poes  ofereode, 
/ASses  sivd  iiiccfj  !  is  of  a  piece  with  the  Wanderer's 
conclusions  on  reviewingr  the  fates  of  men.  The 
reflective  mood  which  leads  to  moralizing  is  closely 
akin  to  the  elegiac  spirit.  Modern  poetry  is  full  of 
instances  of  it.  The  amount  of  Anglo-Saxon  verse 
distmctly  heathen  in  character  is  relatively  small, 
and  citations  from  it  are  likely  to  be  questioned  as 
later  additions.  This  applies  to  the  many  passages 
in    Beoimdf  containing   moral    reflections,    and    the 

»  Ztft.f.  d.  Phil.,  XXXV,  11.  ••»  JEG.  Ph.,  IV,  460  if. 

»  Ibid.,  p.  477. 


INTRODUCTION  45 

blighting  band  of  higher  criticism  has  been  laid  even 
on  Widsi^dind  Dear.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that 
vhe  lyric  cry  of  the  banished  wife  in  the  Wifes  Com- 
plaint is  interrupted  at  its  height  by  reflections  on  the 
virtues  beseeming  a  youth,  while  it  closes  with  a  gen- 
eral maxim  deduced  from  the  sad  experiences  of  the 
once  happy  couple.  The  mere  presence  of  moralizing 
in  a  poem  cannot  be  said  to  indicate  interpolation." 

The  uhi  sunt  motive  in  92-93  is  in  the  gnomic 
mood,  and  if  converted  to  declarative  expression 
would  be  gnomic  in  form  : 

Hwier  cwoni  mearg  ?  hwijer  ewoui  mago  ?  liwier  cwom 

maSSuriigyfa? 
hweer  cwom  symbla  gesetu  ?  hwSr  sindon  seledr^aruas  ? 

But  difficulty  lies  in  fipding  an  equivalent  assertion 
that  will  retain  the  feeling  and  force  of  the  interroga- 
tive couplet.  Beside  the  question,  "Where  are  the 
snows  of  yesteryear  ? "  the  affirmation,  "  No  one 
knows  wher3  the  snows  of  yesteryear  are,''  becomes 
far  less  vivid.  And  so  in  these  lines  from  the  Wan- 
derer, emphasis  and  sententiousness  are  gained  by 
the  form,  a  form  which  might  be  characterized  as 
the  interrogative  gnome,  The  iihi  sunt  motivation  is 
an  old  one,  perhaps  of  equal  age  with  riddle,  charm, 
and  speli.^ 

100b  reverts  to  the  omnipotence  of  fate:  "Wyrd 
seo  mgere,"  ^  the  commonplace  observed  elsewhere 
throughout  this  work.  The  thought  is  contained  in 
the  fine  line  107:  "onwendeJS  wyrda  gesceaf t  weorold 

1  Cf.  MLN.,  Vill,  187-188,  for  parallels  to  the  lines  above  quoted. 

2  Gollancz  ia  wrong  in  translating,  "  Theira  was  a  glorious  fate."  Cf. 
E.  E.  T.  S.,  CIV,  2U3. 


46  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

under  heofenum,"  which  is  less  commonplace  and  has 
the  same  heathen  tone. 

106 :  "  Eall  is  earfoSlic  8or)>an  rice,"  is  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  equivalent  for  the  sentence  quoted  above  from 
Sigrdrifomol  (p.  26).  BeoKyuJf,  10616-1063,  has  also 
a  kinship  with  it.  It  might  seem  to  reveal  a  tendency 
of  our  ancestors  to  complain  at  hard  times  and  con- 
ditions, even  as  their  descendants  do  to-day;  but  it 
also  suggests  the  disturbed  political  situation  in 
Britain  of  the  eighth  century,  conditions  which  prob- 
ably gave  fresh  meaning  to  many  outworn  phrases. 

108-110  are  interesting  from  their  combination 
into  priamel  form  : 

h6r  bits  feoh  liene,  h6r  bi3  fr6ond  liene, 
her  bits  mon  laine,  her  bitS  inaeg  Uene, 
eal  j'is  eorSan  gesteal  Idel  weorSetS ! 

Each  of  the  five  gnomes  is  prosaic  enough  in  expres- 
sion, but  taken  together  they  show  conscious  elabora- 
tion not  dissimilar  to  that  employed  in  the  Cotton 
collection. 

112a  is  of  a  type  often  found:  ^  "Til  biS  se)>ehis 
treowe  gehealdetJ."  It  is  a  kind  usually  found  in  pas- 
sages suspiciously  Christian,  and  because  of  that 
coincidence,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  line  111  of  the 
Wanderer  seems  to  close  the  poem,  I  believe  it  to  be 
part  of  the  homiletic  addition. 

112&-114a  ne  sceal  niefre  his  torn  tO  rycene 
beorn  of  his  breostura  acySan,  iiemtSe  he  aer  ))a  bote  cunne 
eorl  mid  elne  gefremman ! 

should  be  compared  with  11&  ff. 

1  Cf.  On.  Ex.,  35,  and  note. 


INTRODUCTION  47 

From  so  long  a  list  in  a  poem  numbering  but  115 
lines,  it  will  be  noticed  by  a  mere  hazard  of  addition 
and  subtraction  that  the  amount  of  sententious  mate- 
rial is  sufficient  to  justify  naming  the  poem  a  gnomic 
lyric.  The  strain  throughout  is  one  of  sad  contem- 
plation and  reflection,  which  though  personal  in  its 
origin  is  easily  diverted  into  the  general.  As  an 
elegiac  composition,  moreover,  the  poem  is  not  seri- 
ously interrupted  by  the  frequent  development  of  a 
moral :  it  is  logically  all  of  a  piece. 

"Sceal,"  "oft,"  '^mseg,"  and  "bis"  appear  as 
catchwords  of  the  gnomic  expressions  which  are,  in 
content,  distinct  from  those  of  the  epic,  pealing  forth 
the  jubilant  note  of  courage,  incitation  to  brave  deeds  ; 
but  which  are  similar  to  those  epic  counsels  exhorting 
to  fidelity,  prudence,  wisdom,  and  the  like.  Fate 
weighs  even  m.ore  heavily  than  in  Beowulf,  as  might 
be  expected  in  a  poem  dealing  with  the  woes  of  the 
friendless  man. 

In  Beowulf  CA\d  the  Wanderer,  we  find  — exclusive  of 
the  passage  in  Byrhtnotli  —  the  best  of  the  old  speeches 
which  are  preserved  in  epic  and  lyric  verse.  Hence- 
forth, Christianity  either  modifies  the  old  or  supplies 
their  places  by  another  variety. 

In  calling  attention  to  the  gnomic  passages  in  the 
Seafarer y"^  it  will  be  necessary  to  say  a  word  or  two 
about  the  unity  of  the  poem.  The  main  divisions  gen- 
erally recognized  are  l-64a  and  646-124  ;2  but  Thorpe 
observed  the  change  in  matter  and  manner  from  103 
to  the  close,  and  Lawrence  suggests  that  not  enough 

1  nib.,  I,  21K). 

*  Cf.  Kluge,  Eng.  St.,  VI,  322  ft.  ;  Boer,  op.  cit.  ;  Lawrence,  op.  cit. 


48  GNOMIC   POETllY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

attention  has  been  paid  to  this  line  of  demarcation.* 
In  l-64a,  the  critics  usually  see  the  l3rric  proper ;  in 
646-124,  material  more  or  less  didactic  and  suffi- 
ciently separated  from  part  I  to  deserve  a  distinct 
caption.  Now,  there  seems  to  be  no  essential  reason 
for  drawing  the  line  at  64a.  Up  to  this  point,  it  is 
true,  the  main  thesis  has  been  the  sea,  —  its  fascina- 
tion, its  hardships.  It  is  likewise  true  that  from  64& 
forward  the  sea  passes  into  the  background  and  the 
elegiac  strain  is  prominent  in  a  vein  of  moralizing 
more  or  less  tedious.  But  before  103,  I  see  no 
definite  boundaries ;  the  personal  leads  gradually  to 
the  impersonal,  the  particular  merges  into  the  gen- 
eral, the  theme  of  the  sea  is  changed  into  didactic 
commonplaces  about  the  universe.  The  first  part  is 
nobler ;  it  rings  of  remote  times.  Though  the  whole 
poem  is  elegiac,  passing  gradually  from  heathen  into 
Christian  thought,  no  definitely  gnomic  verses  are 
found  before  103.  The  single  exception,  apparently 
a  later  version  of  Beowulf,  1385  If.,  I  have  mentioned 
above.  Now,  after  117,  the  first  line  of  the  hom- 
iletic  close,   the    matter    is    practically    all  gnomic : 

103 :  Micel  bij)  s6  meotudes  egsa,  forljou  hi  seo  molde  oiicyrretJ, 

and 

116 :  Meotud  meahtigra  Jjonne  aenges  monnes  gehygd, 

are  similar  to  Gn.  C,  4h.  1155  :  "  Wyrd  biS  swiSre"  is 
a  parallel  of  Gn.  C,  da ;  moreover,  by  its  juxtaposition 
"with  116  shows  the  identical  relation  that  Gn.  C,  6a 
bears  to  46.  Parallels  of  106,  107,  and  109  are  found 
in  the  Exeter  Gnomes  (q.  v.).  Lines  111-112  preach 
the  ancient  virtue  of  moderation  : 

*  Op.  cit.,  p.  471. 


INTRODUCTION  51 

enumerated  at  length,  among  v/hich  we  find  a  similar 
combination :  "  Let  him  be  sober  ...  let  him  be  affa- 
ble." ^  This,  I  think,  serves  to  reveal  more  strongly 
the  general  gnomic  character  of  the  lines  from  The 
Banished  Wifes  Lament. 

The  Song  of  Deor  '^  is  unique  in  Anglo-Saxon  litera- 
ture in  its  employment  of  a  refrain,  and  is  of  special 
interest  here  since  that  refrain  is  gnomic.  pops 
ofereodey  Aisses  swd  mceg  !  has  been  usually  translated 
as  having  distirct  references  to  the  fortunes  of  Deor : 
That  he  surmounted :  so  this  may  I !  But  Lawrence 
maintains''  that  the  thought  is  general.  "There  is 
no  way  of  telling  that  he  [Deor]  may  not  have  had 
present  woes  of  his  own  in  mind  when  he  says  Hsses 
Siva  mceg !  but  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  it,  and 
11.  28  ff.  are  certainly  general  rather  than  personal." 
He  thinks  the  poem  is  "  not  a  complaint,  but  a  con- 
solation." As  tlie  troubles  of  Wayland,  Beadohild, 
and  others  passed,  so  may  the  suiferings  of  the  sorrow- 
ful one  in  line  28.  The  refrain  then,  is  "  cheerful  and 
practical  "  philosophy,  vivid  in  comparison  v/ith  the 
commonplaces  of  the  Wanderer  and  the  Seafarer. 
Old  troubles  have  passed  and  present  ones  may! 
"  The  whole  piece  seems  most  easily  interpreted  as  a 
general  poem  of  consolation,  applicable  to  anyone  in 
present  trouble."  * 

The  generalizing  passage  31-34  is  part  of  what 
may  be  an  interpolation: 


1  "  rop  sobraig  .  .  .  rop  soacoUmach."  —  K.  Meyer,  op.  c(t.,  p.  12. 

^Dfis  San<jera  Trost,  Bib.,  1,  278  ff. 

■  The  Song  of  Deor,  in  M.  Ph.,  IX,  1,  23  fl. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  27. 


52  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

^I?eg  })onne  gej'encan,  ]>xt  geond  ]>5,s  woruld 
witig  dryhten  wende})  geneahhe, 
eorle  moneguin  are  gesceawat5, 
wislicne  blied,  sumuin  weana  dael. 

In  favor  of  late  insertion  are  ivitig  dryhten^  the  fact 
that  the  dramatic  lyric  plan  is  broken  up,  and  that 
the  tone  is  hardly  that  of  a  writer  "  who  had  taken 
Deor's  own  tonic."     Moreover,  the  lines  are  "  awkward 
in  syntax,  and  muddy  in  thought,  and  their  philosophy 
is  not  quite  that  of  the  refrain,  although  not  contrary 
to  it."  ^     Further,  gnomic  passages  on  the  fortunes  or 
fates  of  men  occur  largely  in  later  poems,  seemingly 
Christian.     Against  late  addition  are  the  facts  that 
wltig  drijliten  may  be  a  single  substitution  in  a  heathen 
passage  for  Wyrd  and  a  corresponding  modifier,  that 
departure  from  the  dramatic  lyric  plan  may  arise,  as 
we  have  seen,  naturally  from  the  elegiac  mood,  and 
that  the  sum  type  of  sententious  expression,  though 
found  more  abundantly  in  later  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  is 
yet  found  in  the  Eddie  poems  where  there  is  no  indica- 
tion of  late  origin.''^     Although  the  moralizing  passage 
is  a  trifle  forced,  yet  its  content  is  not  inharmonious 
with  the  lyric  scheme  :  So  any  man  sitting  sorrowful, 
severed  from  joys,  may  reflect  that  the  fortunes  of 
men  are  diverse,  and   that   while   one   has    wealth, 
another  has  woe  :  let  him  surmount  his  misery  !     On 
the  whole,  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  the  lines  are 

^  Lawrence,  op.  cit.,  p.  27. 
2  Cf.  Uuvami'l,  stauza  G9  : 

sunir  es  af  sunom  stell, 
suuir  af  fry&ndom,  sumr  af  f^  6nio, 

8umr  af  verkora  vel.  — S.-G.,  I,  35. 

and  IIyndloIj6/>,  above,  p.  23. 


INTKODUCTION  68 

or  are  not  interpolated  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  agree  witli 
Lawrence  that  they  are  "  really  quite  in  accord  with 
its  structure,  making  plainer  its  message."  ^ 

The  poem  which  Thorpe  entitled  On  the  Endow- 
ments and  Fursuits  of  Men,  and  which  has  been  va- 
riously named  Gifts  of  Men,  Bi  Monna  Crceftum,  Der 
Menschen  Gdbcn,^  belongs  to  the  early  Christian  period. 
Lines  1-29  are  obviously  the  composition  of  a  monk, 
as  are  also  103-113,  the  homiletic  close,  besides  8G- 
95  in  the  heart  of  the  poem.  The  remainder  have  a 
heathen  ring  ;  they  have  at  best  no  reference  to  tokens 
and  symbols  of  Christianity,  but  celebrate  harp-play- 
ing, seamanship,  smithcraft,  and  the  like.  One  exam- 
ple will  suffice  to  illustrate  their  gnomic  character. 

49  Sum  mid  hondum  maeg  hearpan  gr^tan, 

ah  li6  gleobeamos  gearobrygda  list. 
Sum  bis  rynig,  sum  ryht-scytte, 
sum  leoSa  gleaw,  sum  on  loude  snel, 
feSe  spedig. 

The  origin  of  the  poem  was  pointed  out  by  Dietrich* 
as  Christian,  having  its  sources  and  analogues  in  1 
Corinthians,  xii,  8-10,  Gregory's  29th  Homily  on  the 
Book  of  Job,  and  Christ,  G59-690. 

But  it  may  be  objected  that  too  many  of  these  sum 
gnomes  both  here  and  in  the  Fates  of  Men  and  in  the 
passage  from  Christ  deflect  the  current  of  ideas  away 
from  Christianity.  A  dilemma  arises,  therefore : 
did  a  monkish  redactor  prefix  his  beginning  and  add 
his  conclusion  to  a  gnomic  poem  of  heathen  origin  ? 
Or  did  he  compose  the  whole  poem,  extending  the 
sum,  type  which  he  knew  from  Christian  sources  ?     It 

1  Op.  at.,  p.  28.  9  Bib.,  3  J,  140.  «  Cf.  Onind.,  197. 


54  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN    ANGLO-SAXON 

may  as  well  be  remarked  at  once,  if  the  latter  alter- 
native be  favored,  that  in  the  case  of  the  Christ  pas- 
sage one  meets  with  a  similar  difHcnlty,  hence  the 
question  has  only  been  shifted.  That  is  to  say,  the 
list  in  Christ  659-690  contains  also  wordly  pursuits 
as  well  as  spiritual  gifts : '  the  Christian  lines  may 
have  received  addition,  or  the  entire  passage  may  be 
an  interpolation. 

Gnomes  of  a  similar  type  or  class  are  seldom  found 
grouped  in  extended  series,  either  in  North  Germanic 
or  West  Germanic  literatui'e.  IlovaviSl  shows  repeti- 
tion but  not  extension.  The  Cotton  Gnomes  show  an 
apparent  prolongation,  but  the  colorless  sceal  is  the 
constant  element.  In  both  the  Edda  and  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  diversity,  total  absence  of  unity,  mark  the 
collections.  The  sum  gnome,  moreover,  is  not  prevr> 
lent  in  early  Germanic  literature.  On  the  other 
hand,  extended  gnomic  groups  of  the  same  class  are 
often  found  in  Eastern  sources.  Consider  the  allot- 
ment of  time  in  Ecdesiastes,  iii,  2-8  ;  the  list  of 
those  who  are  blessed,  Matthew,  v,  3-11 ;  consider 
the  various  lists  in  Ecclesiasticus  :''  be  ashamed  be- 
fore thy  father  and  mother  of  (a  fault  named)  and 
before  (repeated  for  different  personages),  then  be 
ashamed  of  (a  number  of  other  faults  listed).  Anti- 
thetically, then  follows  a  list  of  things  one  need  not 


^Wtilker  thinks  Cynewulfliad  a  heathen  poem  before  him  when  he  \\rote 
the  Christ  passage,  but  not  the  Endoxcments  and  Pursuits  of  Men,  which 
he  regards  as  later  (in  its  present  form)  than  the  work  of  Cynevrulf. 
But  he  thinks  that  both  poems  have  a  common  origin  in  some  heathen 
poem.  —  Grund.,  p.  108. 

^  Cf.  The  Hebrew  Text  of  Btn  Sira  (Ecclesiasticus) ,  with  Translation 
and  Critical  Notes,  C.  A.  McRae,  University  of  Toronto,  1910. 


INTRODUCTION  55 

be  ashamed  of.  That  condensation  is  present  does 
not  alter  the  fact  that  a  series  of  counsels  is  given; 
any  counsel  may  be  removed  from  the  context  by 
supplying  before  the  particular  fault,  the  common 
term,  "  Be  ashamed  of." 

With  direct  reference  to  the  sum  type,  which  oc- 
curs with  repetition  in  Corinthians,^  we  may  observe 
that  it  was  present  in  Sanscrit :  "^  "  One  of  them  [fore- 
runners of  the  sententious  poetry  which  flourished  so 
luxuriantly  in  Sanscrit  literature]  consisting  only  of 
four  Suanzas  (IX,  112)  describes  in  a  moralizing 
strain  of  mild  humor  how  men  follow  after  gain 
in  various  ways : 

The  thoughts  of  men  are  manifold, 
Their  callings  are  of  diverse  kinds: 
The  carpenter  desires  a  rift, 
The  leech  a  fracture  wants  to  cure. 

A  poet  I :  my  dad's  a  leech ; 
Mama  the  upper  millstone  grinds  : 
With  various  minds  we  strive  for  wealth, 
As  ever  seeking  after  kine." 

Another  of  these  poems  is  in  praise  of  wise  speech 
(X,  71).     Here  is  one  of  the  stanzas  : 

The  one  sits  putting  forth  rich  bloom  of  verses, 
Another  sings  a  song  in  skilful  numbers, 
A  third  as  teacher  states  the  laws  of  being, 
A  fourth  metes  out  the  sacrifice's  measure. 

^  "  For  to  one  is  given  by  the  Spirit  the  word  of  wisdom  ;  to  another 
the  word  of  knowledge  by  the  same  Spirit ;  to  another  faith  by  the  same 
Spirit ;  to  another  the  gifts  of  healing  by  the  same  Spirit ;  to  another  the 
"working  of  miracles  ;  to  another  prophecy  ;  to  another  discerning  of 
spirits  ;  to  another  divers  kinds  of  tongues  ;  to  another  the  interpretation 
of  tongues."  —  Loc.  cit. 

^  History  of  Sanscrit  Literature,  A.  A.  McDonell,  New  York,  1900, 
p.  128. 


56  GNOMIC  POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

The  Greek  poets  also  exhibit  numerous  instances  of 
this  type.^  A  close  parallel  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  pas- 
sages in  the  poems  under  consideration  is  found  in 
Iliad,  13,  72G-734,  which  has  been  translated,  "  For 
to  one  man  has  God  given  for  his  portion  the  works 
of  war,  to  another  the  dance,  to  another  the  lute  and 
song,  but  in  the  heart  of  yet  another  hath  far-seeing 
Zeus  placed  an  excellent  understanding." 

Though  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  influence 
of  Greece  on  Anglo-Saxon  literature  was  slight  and 
superficial,  yet  partiality  for  the  study  of  Greek  is 
indicated  in  a  curious  enumeration  of  different  na- 
tional characteristics  :  "  Sapientia  Grcecorum  —  super- 
bia  Romanorum,"  etc."  Nor  is  Theodore  to  be  for- 
gotten, the  Greek  priest  who  was  sent  into  England 
by  Pope  Yitalian  in  688,  and  who  took  with  him 
authors  in  Latin  and  his  own  tonorue.'^  jhidreas  and 
Elene  further  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that  Anglo- 
Saxon  poets  frequently  drew  upon  Greek  sources. 

With  the  Eastern  books  of  wisdom,  at  least  those 
of  the  Scriptures,  Anglo-Saxon  priests  were  familiar. 
They  also  knew  Boethius  and  Gregory.  A  homily  of 
the  latter  has  been  referred  to  as  a  possible  source  of 
these  sum  gnomes,  and  Brandl  suggests  a  parallelism 
between  Met.,  II,  8^,  with  their  introduction  and  con- 
clusion.'' Althoutjjh  Brandl's  observation  does  not 
apply  to  the  type   of  gnome,  it   does,  I   think,  add 

1  Cf.  list  friven  by  Cook,  Christ,  pp.  18(5-187. 

2  Caligula  A  XV, Vol.  122,  v,     Cf.  Wright  in  Biog.  Brit.  Lit.,  11,43,  note. 

*  Cf.  Bede,  HE.,  IV,  1  and  2.  Rede  adds  that  the  pupils  of  Adrian 
and  Theodore  were  well  trained  both  in  Greek  and  Latin.  See  further, 
V.  21. 

♦  Op.  rif.,  p.  lor.ti. 

■    l.   I 


INTRODUCTION  57 

weiglit  to  my  point  tliat  the  poem  was  put  together 
by  one  who  knew  the  Southern  and  Eastern  litera- 
tures. It  is  not.  I  believe,  an  old  heathen  poem  re- 
dacted, but  one  written  entire  by  a  learned  monk, 
who  was  not  so  lost  in  his  bookish  Christianity  that 
he  had  not  sufficient  appreciation  of  secular  gifts  to 
include  them  with  the  spiritual. 

Against  long  descent  from  Teutonic  heathendom  is 
the  further  fact  that  lower  forms  of  nature  are  ab- 
sent ;  man  alone  is  present.  In  a  poem  thus  extended, 
an  older  writer  would  have  departed  in  all  probability 
from  so  monotonous  a  series. 

On  the  Various  Fortunes  of  Men^  otherwise  Fates 
of  Men,  Bi  Monna  Wyrdum,  Der  Menschen  Geschickcy^ 
Rieger  thought  to  be  by  the  author  of  the  Gifts. ^  In 
broad  analysis  it  is  similar  in  composition :  1-14  and 
93-98,  introduction  and  conclusion,  are  Christian,  as 
are  also  58,  64-66.  The  remainder  show  no  definite 
Christian  reference.  In  its  subject  matter,  however, 
the  poem  rings  older  than  the  one  just  considered ; 
in  striking  the  note  of  hunger,  war,  and  wolf  (the 
miseries  of  men,  again)  it  recalls  certain  lines  in  the 
Gnomic  Verses.  And  it  is  marked  by  the  old  sceal 
formula  as  well  as  by  the  sum. 

33  Sum  sceal  on  geapum  galgan  ridan, 

Seomian  aet  swylte,  o3  ))ait  sawlhord 
b.iucofa  blodig  abrocen  weorSetJ, 
]>JiV  him  hrefn  nimeS  heafodsyne,  etc. 

BrandP  thinks  the  poem  composed  of  a  first  and  a 
second  part,  the  latter  being  a  Christian  continuation 

'  nib.  »',  118.  »  Vf.  (Iruml,  p.  10',>.  »  Op.  rU.,  pp.  1030-10:17, 

I  )l,l.,  '|\    llM,  'Ml     I   ,.      f  .  |,    lil'l  •'  if,  ill  ,  If    III. Ml    Hill, 


58  GNOMIC  POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

of  a  heathen  fragment.  But  there  are,  then,  fourteen 
lines  of  the  introduction  to  be  accounted  for.  I  think 
the  question  of  authorship  is  to  be  answered  as  was 
that  concerning  the  authorship  of  the  Gifis.  I  be- 
lieve the  Christian  author  had  in  mind,  either  from 
tradition  or  from  heathen  literature,  a  number  of 
examples  illustrating  various  fates :  these  he  sum- 
marized in  brief  form,  using  the  sum  type,  itself 
familiar  to  the  clerical  brotherhood  from  the  in- 
stances cited  above  as  possible  sources  of  the  GiftSf 
or  from  similar  instances.  The  fact  that  sceal  rings 
of  the  old  fatalistic  gnomic  utterance  does  not  argue 
necessarily  for  ancient  heathen  origin.  Wyrd  here  has 
the  force  of  destiny,  and  though  sceal  is  also  assojiated 
with  ivyrd  in  the  sense  of  blind  fate,  it  is  no  more  sig- 
nificant here  than  the  mcBcj  of  the  Grift  gnomes. 

The  Monitory  Poeni,  known  also  as  Bi  Monna 
Mode,  Minds  of  Men,  and  Der  Menschen  Gemilt,-  is 
a  poetical  sermon  on  pride.  It  shows  a  faint  remi- 
niscence of  the  su7n  type  of  gnome  ^  and  thus  indi- 
cates the  preference  clerical  writers  had  for  the  type. 

A  fourth  poem  on  the  False7iess  of  Men,^  from  this 
title  and  the  others  it  has  acquired,^  would  apparently 
contain  genomic  material  similar  to  that  in  the  first 
two  poems  of  this  group.  It  is,  however,  as  Wiilker 
indicates  by  his  designation  of  it,  merely  a  fragment 
of  a  homily  based  on  the  twenty-eighth  Psalrn,  and 
it  has  scarcely  a  vestige  of  gnomic  expression  left  in 
its  desultory  didacticism.     In  this,  and  in  the  Moni- 

1  Bib.,  31,  144.  2  cf.  21-26,  31  ff.  »  Bib.,  2,  108. 

*  Bi  Monna  Lease,  Der  Menschen  Falscheit,  Predigtbruchstuck  uber 
Fsahn  2S. 


INTRODUCTION  59 

tory  Poem,  crisp  heathen  teaching,  definite  precepts 
of  morality,  brief  bits  of  philosophy,  —  all  have 
lengthened  into  a  homiletic  dullness.  The  ancient 
current  leaped  and  dashed  in  sudden  vigorous  bursts ; 
the  later  stream  dissipates  its  energy  in  the  shallow 
flats  of  homily,  level  and  monotonous. 

The  Wise  Father's  Instruction,  likewise,  is  didactic 
and  leads  into  a  circle  of  mediaeval  poetry,  for  which 
the   Disticha  of  Cato  as  well  as  Oriental  writings 
yield  much   material.^     Precepts   are   numbered,  as 
are  the  counsels  of  Sigrdrifa,  or  certain  sayings  in 
Hqvamol ;  ^  but  the  matter  is  not  closely  related.     As 
a  prototype,  the   decalogue  might   as  well   be   sug- 
gested.    In  other  words,  mere  numbering  offers  small 
hint  of  source,  and  the  matter  is  imbued  from  begin- 
ning to  end  with  Christian  doctrine.     This  form  of 
didactic  poetry  occurs  in  most  literatures  and  among 
all  peoples.     One  turns  to  Bohemian  literature  and 
finds  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  The 
Advice  of  a  Father  (Smil)   to  his  son ;  ^  one  passes 
to   Celtic   literature   and  meets   it  as  early  as   the 
ninth  century  in  Tlie  Instructions  of  King  Comiac 
Mac  Airt ;  one  observes  a  similar  framework  in  Old 
Norse.     But   further   back  yet  it   is   found   in  An- 
cient  Egypt   and    China."*     The    points   noteworthy 

1  J5i6.,l,  363.  Other  titles:  A  Father's  Advice,  Feeder  Larcvidas,  Des 
Voters  Lehren.  T.iis  subject  has  not  been  investigated  to  any  great  ex- 
tent. Rudolf  Fis'-^her  has  written  a  small  brochure,  How  the  Wyse  Man 
Taught  hin  Sone.  It  consists  largely  of  quotations,  moat  of  which  are 
comparatively  modern. 

2  Latter  parL     Cf.  stanzas  14(5  ff.  — S.-G.,  I,  50. 

»  Cf.  A  History  of  Bohemiaii  Literature,  Francis  Count  Luetzow, 
New  York,  1890,  p.  3(5  ff. 
*  Sec  above,  p.  9. 


60  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

with  reference  to  this  Anglo-Saxon  collection  are 
that  expression  has  passed  beyond  gnomic  bounds, 
and  that  the  poem  shows  itself  to  be  of  late  origin. 
Such  instructions  as  the  following  are  distinctly 
Christian :  honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  re- 
spect thy  teachers,  countenance  no  wickedness,  be 
no  accomplice  in  sin.  As  these  teachings  are  not 
inconsistent  with  heathen  ideals,  so  echoes  of  heathen 
morality  are  not  inharmonious  with  Christian  stand- 
ards. Out  of  Germanic  wisdom  appear  such  precepts 
as  these:  "Do  not  deceive  a  dear  friend,"  "Distin- 
guish between  good  and  evil,"  "  Think  not  aloud," 
''Be  temperate  and  sagacious." 

From  the  nature  of  morali zings  contained  in  a  poem, 
one  may  draw  conclusions  respecting  their  age.  The 
truth  of  this  statement  can  be  illustrated  by  examples 
the  time  of  whose  composition  is  approximately 
known.  Let  us  look  briefly  at  the  Caedmonian  poetry, 
observing  the  difference  in  its  ethical  digressions  and 
those  in  the  older  epic  and  lyric.  We  meet  with  an 
excellent  example  in  Exodus:^ 

5316  pis  ItBiie  dr6ain 

womuium  awyrged,  wreccum  alyfed, 
earmra  anbld  :  eSellease 
|>ysiie  gystsele  gihfiuin  healdaS 
murnaS  on  mode,  manhus  witon 
fiest  under  foldan,  pair  biS  fyr  and  wyrm, 
open  ece  scrajf  yfela  gehwylces. 
Swa  nu  regul^eofas  rice  dailaS 
yldo  0(55e  ierdea(5,  eft  wyrd  cymS 
iniegen})rymma  maest  ofer  luiddangeard, 
dieg  diedum  f ah  :  dryhten  sylfa 
on  )>ani  meSelstede  maneguui  demeS. 

ii?!-6.,  2,  445ff. 


INTRODUCTION  61 

It  will  be  seen  that  part  of  these  ideals  are  common 

to  heathen  and  to  Christian  ethics :  (1)    This  life  is  a 

transient  joy,  and  (2)    It  is  filled  with  misery.     But 

the  house  of  the  wicked  beneath  the  earth,  and  the 

Day  of  Judgment  separate  the  passage  from  the  older 

gnomic  vein.     Heathen  sententiousness  spins  itself 

out  into  a  typically  Christian  homiletic  thread. 

In  Daniel^  20&-21,  though  the  form  is  ancient,  the 

idea  is  late : 

Swa  no  man  scyle 
his  gclstes  lufan  wi5  gode  dielan. 

This  hortatory  expression,  of  the  familiar  swd,  scyle 
type,  is  brief  enough  to  satisfy  requirements  of  gnomic 
dennition;  but  its  eminently  Christian  content  prevents 
accepting  it  as  a  perpetuation  of  heathen  precept. 

Likewise  the  oft  type  appears,  but  as  in  the  example 
just  quoted  it  is  ancient  only  in  its  detached  generali- 
zation. 

590  oft  metod  aliet  luonige  3eode 

•  •  •  wyrcan,  ponne  hie  woldun  sylfe 
fyrene  fiestau,  ier  him  fair  godes 
)>urli  egesau  giyie  aldre  gesceode. 

As  in  the  heathen  epic,  so  in  the  Christian  narrative 
poem,  a  generalization  often  sums  up  the  details  of  a 
particular  case.  Such  gnomic  summarizing,  though  not 
necessarily  theological,  is  not  therefore  to  be  regarded 
as  heathen,  any  more  than  gnomic  deductions  in  these 
same  heathen  epics  are,  because  they  are  apart  from 
the  concrete,  to  be  regarded  as  Christian  interpolations. 
Consider  an  instance  from  Genesisj'  634  ff. : 

^  Bib.,  2,  410.  a /7ji(f .,  2,  318  ff. 


62  GNOMIC  POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

Monige  hwile  bi?  ]>5.m  men  full  wJl, 

pe  hine  ne  warnaS,  ))onne  hS  his  geweald  1  afatJ. 

Eve  has  ignored  God's  warning,  an  omission  the  resalts 
of  which  are  logically  followed  by  this  moralizing 
couplet.  In  the  early  Christian  epic,  however,  such 
gnomic  verses  are  rare.  The  integrity  of  the  older 
type  is  broken;  sermons,  not  sentences,  abound. 

In  the  Cynewulfian  epic,  we  find  a  few  reminiscences 
of  the  older  form.  Of  those  noted  in  Andreas,^  the 
first  suggests  Beowulf,  1385  ff. : 

3206  Selre  biS  ieghwam, 

l>?et  he  eaSmedum  ellorfusne 
oucnawe  cuSlIce,  swa  |>tet  Crist  bebSad. 

But  the  termination  indicates  that  the  author  of  the 
passage  was  no  heathen  poet. 

Christian  reminiscences  of  Beowulf y  672b  ff.,  are, 

4256427  God  eatSe  maeg 

hea^oliSeudum  helpe  gefreinman, 
and 

458  ror)>an  ic  eow  to  so3e  secgan  wille, 

foet  nSfre  forlStetS  lifgende  God 
eorl  on  eorSan,  gif  his  ellen  d6ah. 

Christ  ^  sounds  a  note  familiar  from  the  Scriptures, 
in 
856  ff.  ...  swa  eal  manna  beam 

sorgum  sawat5,  swa  eft  rlpat5 

cenna?  to  cwealme, 

or  as  Grollancz  translates  : 

All  the  children  of  men 
As  they  sow  in  sorrow,  so  afterwards  they  reap, 
they  bring  forth  for  death. 

^  Bib.,  2,  1.     I  follow  punctuation  and  numbering  of  lines  used  by 
Krapp,  in  his  edition  of  Andreas,  New  York,  1906. 

2  ^16.,  31  ff.  .  • 


INTRODUCTIOlf  63 

Taking  heed  was  enjoined  by  the  earlier  Germans, 
but  hardly  with  the  penalty  for  heedlessness  suggested 
in  these  lines : 

1599  Frgcne  me  })incetJ 

J>set  })5,s  gsestberend  giman  nellaS 
men  on  m6de  {)oane  man  hwset 
him  s5  waidend  to  wrace  gesette 
lapum  leodum. 

"  Be  good,  or  you  will  be  punished,"  is  typical  of  early 
Christian  doctrine. 

The  long  passage  659-690  has  been  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Gifts  of  Men  and  Fates  of  Men.  It 
is  g;nomic  in  a  similar  desrree.  On  its  occurrence  m 
chis  poem  much  has  been  said  ;  but  whether  it  is  part 
of  the  original  or  whether  it  is  an  interpolation  prob- 
ably never  can  be  satisfactorily  determined.^ 

Guthlac"-  30:  "he  fela  findeS,  fea  beo5  gecorene,"  is 
virtually  a  quotation  from  Mattheic,  xxii,  14.  The 
long  passage,  1322  ff.,  however,  was  certainly  written 
by  a  man  who  knew  the  earlier  Germanic  gnomic 
sayings.  It  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  messenger 
who  goes  to  tell  Guthlac's  sister  of  the  Saint's  death: 

'  Ellen  bis  s6last  \5.m  ))e  oftost  sceal 

drfiogan  dryhtenbealu,  deope  behycgan 

})roht  })eodengedal,  |)onne  sSo  })rag  cymeS 

wefen  wyrdstafum  !  ]>Mi  wit  sS  )>e  sceal  ■. 

aswaman  sarigferS,  wat  his  sincgiefan 

holdnes  biheledre:  he  sceal  hean  })onan 

geomor  hAveorfan,  })5,m  biS  gomeues  wana, 

fe  pa  earfeSa  oftost  dreogeS 

on  sargum  sefan. 

»  Cf.  Gollancz,  Christ,  p.  103,  and  Cook,  Christ,  pp.  136  fl. 
*Bib.,  31,  55  ff. 


64  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

In  its  form,  though  somewhat  extended,  it  is  typically 
heathen;  in  its  exaltation  of  courage,  in  its  reference 
to  fate's  decrees  and  the  treasure  giver,  it  rings  like  a 
speech  from  Beowulf ;  in  the  elegiac  strain,  it  recalls- 
the  Wcmdcrer  and  the  Seafarer. 

Comparing  gnomic  expressions  in  Christian  narra- 
tive poetry  with  those  in  heathen  epic,  we  find: 

1.  A  number  of  gnomic  precepts  having  their  origin 
in  the  Scriptures,  rather  tlian  among  Germanic 
tribes.  The  Christian  gnome  is  distinctly  theological, 
or  hortatory  after  the  doctrinal  fashion. 

2.  Fewer  gnomes  in  Christian  poetry.  This  may 
be  due  to  one  of  the  following  reasons.  In  tlie  first 
place.  Christian  poetry  is  more  or  less  didactic  ;  it  re- 
jects accretions  of  wisdom  in  compact  form,  preferring 
sermons  instead.  In  the  second  place,  with  the 
growth  of  a  system  of  ethics  and  with  the  acceptance 
of  Christianity,  the  old  maxims  no  longer  insinuated 
themselves  into  a  literature  which  had  its  own  doc- 
trines. And,  finally,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the 
older  epics  grew  out  of  lays  which  arose  among  the 
folk.  Whatever  the  final  manner  of  combining  these 
lays,  folk  philosophy  was,  at  least  in  part,  retained  as 
an  essential  flavor  of  the  stories.  Christian  poetry 
was  composed  by  the  educated  class,  the  monks,  who 
turned,  perhaps  consciously,  away  from  the  philosophy 
of  the  people  for  the  wisdom  of  the  prophets. 

The  only  extant  specimen  of  Anglo-Saxon  poetry 
in  dialogue  form  which  is  didactic  is  paradoxically 
enough  a  late  Christian  composition.  Here  and  chere, 
sliowing  specific  gnomic  forms  and  set  in  a  frame  like 
that  of  VafAnlMesmol,  it  is  characteristically  Germanic. 


INTRODUCTION  65 

At  the  same  time,  as  every  one  knows,  the  theme  is 
widespread,  and  the  fact  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  ver- 
sion is  the  oldest  preserved  and  is  Christian  in  the 
main  does  not  alter  the  truth  that  it  is  blended  with 
Rabbinical  elements,  that  its  origin  is  Eastern,  and 
perhaps  that  origin  lies  in  the  visit  to  Solomon  of  the 
Queen  of  Sheba. 

But  Solomon  and  Saturn,^  though  Oriental  and 
even  Biblical,  drew  from  Teutonic  experience  and 
philosophy  a  number  of  gnomic  sayings.  Nor  is  it  to 
be  marveled  at  that  sententious  expression,  after  a 
period  of  decadence,  appears  rejuvenated  in  one  par- 
ticular poem.  The  framework,  made  for  the  riddle 
contest,  was  such  as  to  admit  terse  sentences,  stray 
bits  of  wisdom  ;  and  the  wonder  would  rather  be  if  in 
a  poem  universal  in  popularity  no  sayings  peculiar  to 
the  national  life  should  have  been  incorporated.  Ger- 
manic wisdom  in  Solomon  and  Saturn  has  been 
"  touched  up  "  by  the  Christian  artist,  but  the  original 
picture  is  clear  under  the  Christian  varnish,  in  lines 
such  as  these : 

435  Wyrd  biS  wended  hearde,  wealleS  swItJe  geneahhe, 

lieo  wop  wecetS,  heo  w€au  hladet5, 
heo  gast  seyS,  heo  ger  byretJ : 
And  hwsetSre  him  imeg  wissefa  wyrda  gehwylce 
gemetigian,  gif  lie  bit5  modes  gleaw, 
and  to  iiis  freondum  wile  fultum  secan 
/  Cell  hwaiSre  godcundes  giestes  brucan. 

This  passage  seems  to  be  a  reminiscence  of  Beoivulf, 
572,  which  has  been  modified  here  as  in  other  poems 
but  with  more  elaboration :  Fate,  though  hardly  to  be 

ii?i7).,  32,  68ff. 


66  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

turned  aside,  yet  may  be  diverted  by  the  wise  of  mind. 
The  conditions  for  tempering  Fate,  not  imposed  in 
the  heathen  gnome,  are  that  a  man  must  be  prudent, 
seek  aid  from  friends,  and  employ  the  divine  spirit. 

In  310  £f.,  we  read  a  series  of  gnomes  which  are  as 
brief  and  pointed  in  form  and  as  Teutonic  in  content 
as  a  series  of  the  Cotton  Manuscript :  ^ 

Nieht  bits  wedera  Slestrost,  ned  bi3  wyrda  lieardost, 
sorh  bis  swarost  byrtSen,  sliep  bi?5  d6aSe  gellcost. 

Nor  is  there  any  ground  for  seeing  influence  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  in  these  lines: 

360  Xe  mffig  mon  for  ildo  cenige  hwlle 

tJone  dSoran  si5,  ac  h6  hine  adrCogan  sceall, 

which  contemplate  the   inevitableness  of  death  and 
the  necessity  of  enduring  it.     Fate  is  in  the  foreground. 
In  other  instances,  the  gnomic  form  associated  with 
Christian  sentiment  may  appear. 

224  Dol  bits  sC  t5e  gaiS  on  d6op  wseter, 

se  t5e  sund  nafaS  ne  gesegled  scip, 
ne  fugles  flyht,  ne  he  mid  fotum  ne  mseg 
grund  geraicaii:  huru  sfi  Godes  cunnaS 
ful  dysllce  dryhtnes  meabta. 

The  dol  &zcT  gnome  and  its  analogues  have  been  noticed 
as  occurring  in  Christian  passages.'^ 

The  smn  type,  which  was  postulated  above  as  of 
Eastern  origin,  occurs  here  in  close  connection  with 
the  Deity. 

342  Ac  forliw5,m  nSron  eor5(we)lan  ealle  gedSled 

leodum  gellce?     Sum  to  lyt  hafatS 
godes  griiedig  :  hine  God  setetS 
3urh  geearnunga  eudgum  t6  rseste. 

»  Cf.  56,  ff.  «  See  pp.  42,  49,  132  (85a). 


INTRODUCTION  67 

The  distribution  of  worldly  fortunes  was  a  theme  upon 
which  the  Anglo-Saxons  loved  to  speculate :  they 
assigned  such  distribution  to  God :  since  the  Scriptures 
contain  references  to  good  and  perfect  gifts  coming 
from  above/  to  various  gifts  from  the  same  spirit, 
and  the  like,^  it  seems  that  this  class  of  sententious 
sayings  arose  in  the  Orient  and  passed  through  the 
didactic  books  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments, 
whence  it  was  disseminated  among  the  Christian 
Anglo-Saxons. 

Of  Christia,n  origin  seems  to  be  the  sentence  formed 
by  1816-182a: 

Wyrs  d65  sfi  5e  llebtJ  0(53e  tSges  so^es  ansaecetJ! 

And  finally,  349 : 

UnliedQ  bi8  and  oriuOd  sS  iSe  a  wile 
gComrian  on  gihtSa:  s6  biS  Gode  fracotJast. 

Better  to  avenge  a  friend  than  to  mourn  him,  the 
heathen  adage  runs  ;  mourn  in  spirit  forever,  and  you 
are  rebellious  to  God,  the  later  principle  affirms. 
According  to  the  former  ethics,  conquer  physically 
and  enjoy  revenge ;  according  to  Christianity,  con- 
quer your  own  soul  and  please  God. 

Two  bits  of  folk  wisdom  have  come  down  to  us, 
embedded  in  prose,  independent  of  lyric  or  epic  con- 
nection and  without  further  expansion.  They  are 
often  published  apart  from  their  context,  and  should 
here  be  fixed  in  their  proper  places,  both  with  respect 
to  orio-in  and  to  rank  as  sententious  material. 

Of  these,  the  first  is  the  Death  Speech  of  Bede,^  the 

^  James,  I,  17.  2  1  Corinthians,  loc.  cit. 

'  Of  all  the  manuscripts,  that  at  St.  Gall,  No.  254,  is  the  oldest  and 
presumably  the  best.     It  dates  from  the  ninth  century,  and  is  therefor© 


68  GNOinC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

earliest  gnomic  expression  for  which  a  definite  date 
may  be  assigned,  735  a.d.  The  saying  itself  is  doubt- 
less much  older,  as  the  context  seems  to  indicate. 
For  its  preservation,  we  are  indebted  to  Cuthbert, 
disciple  of  Bede  and  afterward  Abbot  of  Jarrow,  who 
included  it  in  the  letter  he  sent  to  Cuthwin  detailing 
the  death  of  Bede.  According  to  the  St.  Gall  Manu- 
script,^ the  verses  stand: 

Yove  there  neidfserse  nSnig  uuirthit 
thoncsnotturra  than  him  thar[f]  sie, 
to  ymbhycgannse,  asr  his  hiniong[a]e 
huffit  his  gastse,  godaes  seththa  yflaes 
asfter  dCothdcege  doemid  uueorth[a]e.* 

"but  little  later  than  the  Northumbrian  original.  Besides  another  manu- 
script at  Vienna,  there  are  many  in  England,  a  number  of  which  I  have 
examined.  There  are  two  manuscript  collections  in  which  the  letter  's 
preserved  :  certain  volumes  of  the  Ilistoria  Ecclesiastica,  and  Simeon  of 
Durham's  Mistoj-y.  For  a  list  of  printed  versions,  among  which  are  differ- 
ences similar  to  those  in  the  maniLScripts,  see  Grund.,  p.  144. 

i  Cf.  Oldest  English  Texts,  H.  Sweet,  London,  1885,  p.  149  ;  Ubuugs- 
buck,  J.  Zupilza,  Wien,  181t7,  s.  3. 

-  Before  the  necessary  journey,  no  one  becomes  more  wise  of  thought 
than  to  him  is  ueedful,  to  search  out  before  his  going  hence  what  wiU  be 
adjudged  to  his  spirit  after  the  day  of  death. 

My  own  reading  from  Stowe  104  (twelfth  or  thirteenth  century),  with 
variations  from  Anandel  74,  is  as  follows  : 

Fori  j,am2  ned  fere  ntl-ni  wyr{>ej>8 
t>ances  snotera  J>onne*  him  )>earf  sT,^ 
t5  gehicgenne  Sr  his  hconen  gauge,® 
hwet  his  gaste  gOdes  ol^^e  yfeles ' 
ajfter  dcW  ^  heonen  ^  dembe  '"  weor>e. 
1  Ar.  ffor.         -  MS.  J^an.         «  MS.  wyrl>ah,  Ar.  wir{>eh.        *  Ar.  >oue 
•  Ar.  sy.        ®  Ar.  omits  heonen  gangehwet  his.        ''  Ar.  yvolys.        *  Ar. 
dea>e.        '  Ar.  henon.        i"  Ar.  demed. 

Of  other  HE.  -MSS.  examined,  two  omit  the  Anglo-Saxon  passage 
altogether  (Burney  297  ;  folios  130a^l31a,  and  MS.  2-5014,  folio  117)  ; 
another  (Ilarleian  3G80,  folio  174a)  leaves  a  space  of  three  lines  as  if  to 
include  the  speech  after  the  words:  "  et  in  nra  [nostra]  quoq.  "ingua 
ut  erat  doctus  in  nrs.  carminib[us]."  Anotlier  (Tiberius  C.  II)  omits 
the  entire  letter.    Thia  is  to  be  regretted,  since  the  MS.  is  one  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  69 

Immediately  preceding  the  lines,  Cuthbert  wrote: 
"  Et  in  nostra  qiioque  lingua,  ut  erat  doctus  in  nostris 
carminibiis,  [dicens]  de  terribile  exitu  animarum  e 
corpore."  As  found  in  Simeon's  Histonj  of  the  Church 
of  Durham,  the  letter  adds,  after  a  similar  statement 
to  the  efitect  that  Bede  gave  utterance  to  some  lines 
composed  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue :  "  Nam  et  tunc 
hoc  Anglico  carmine  componens,  multum  compunctus 
aiebat." 

.  One  of  the  best  reasons  for  maintaining  that  Bede 
quoted  the  verses  instead  of  composing  them  lies  in  the 
variety  of  these  versions.  Just  as  ballads  are  seldom 
found  in  fixed  form,  but  show  variations  even  in  the 
same  community,  so  the  lines  here  are  observed  to 
differ  slightly,  even  in  manuscripts  not  widely  sepa- 
rated in  time.  It  would  seem  that  the  speech  was  so 
familiar  that  each  scribe  wrote  it  as  he  knew  it  from 
memory.  Moreover,  internal  evidence  favors  em- 
phasis of  the  lines  :  "  as  he  was  learned  in  our  songs," 
—  for  prudence  and  death,  two  favorite  themes  with 
Germanic  folk,  here  come  together.  As  Wiilker  re- 
marks, this  speech  indicates  that  Bede  had  a  great 
love  for  the  popular  poetry  of  his  people.^ 

The  second  saying  is  published  by  the  editors  of 
the  Bihliothek  ^  as  a  proverb  of  Winf rid's  time.  It 
occurs  in  a  letter  ^  written  by  an  unknown  monk  to 

most  important,  dating  from  the  eighth  century  and  ranking  with  Cotton 
A.  XIV  next  to  the  best,  More's,  in  the  Cambridge  Public  Library. 
Another  (Tiberius  A.  XIV)  is  so  damaged  I  make  nothing  of  the  lines. 
Others,  as  the  Royal  of  the  thirteenth  century,  give  the  verses  in  Latin. 

1  W.  adds:  "Dersolbe  mag  von  Beda  selbst  gedichtet  oder  einem  ihm 
bekannten  gedicl'te  entnommen  sein."  —  GrxtJid.,  p.  144. 

'■*  ^'pruch  aus  Win/rids  Zeit,  Bib.,  2,  815. 

8  MS.  at  Vienna. 


70  GNOMIC  POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 

Winfrid,  Pope  Boniface,  the  Northumbrian  mission- 
ary. Since  Winfrid  died  in  755  a.d.,  the  appearance 
of  the  speech  in  literature  is  contemporaneous  with 
the  one  just  discussed.  It  is  preceded  by  the 
words,  "  Memento  Saxonicum  verbum,"  which  indi- 
cate clearly  enough  that  the  quotation  was  in  the 
nature  of  a  proverb.  I  transcribe  the  version  from 
the  Bibliothek :  ^ 

Oft  dit'dlata  dome  foreklit 

sigistha  galiuem  :  *  suuyltit  thl  Sua.* 

The  interest  in  these  two  sayings  lies  in  their  early 
form,^  their  definite  dating,  and  the  fact  that  they 
chanced  to  be  lifted  out  of  popular  currency  to  an 
abiding  place  in  literature. 

IV 

In  the  ages  that  have  elapsed  since  these  saws, 
meteorological  observations  and  pointed  sayings  were 
received  as  a  heritage  from  the  highest  representa- 
tives of  wisdom,  whether  gods,  men,  or  other  earthly 
creatures,  —  after  this  long  time,  the  line  of  descent  is 
not  easy  to  trace.  By  what  professionally  literary 
spokesmen  were  gnomic  verses  fixed  in  forms  some 
of  which  yet  survive  ?  The  Old  Norse  bard  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  scop  or  gleoman  must  have  been  responsi- 
ble for  those  found  in  epics  and  lyrics.     But  strings  of 

1  For  other  versions,  cf.  Grund.,  p.  145.     Cf.  also  notes  in  Bib. 

2  gahuem,  MS.,  pointing  to  nintli  century.     Cf.  Sweet,  op.  cit.,  p.  162. 

*  Often  the  slow  one  loses  by  his  delay  in  every  successfal  undertak- 
ing ;  therefore,  he  dies  alone. 

*  The  "spruch"  is  not  Northumbrian:  dfCdlata,  as  Sweet  observes, 
points  to  a  West-Saxon  original  or  a  West-Saxon  scribe. 


INTRODUCTION  71 

gnomic  veises,  unconnected  with  narrative  or  elegiac 
verse,  existed  both  in  Old  Norse  and  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
as  the  HovarfLol  and  the  Cotton  Gnomes  and  the 
Exeter  Gnomes  bear  witness.  If  it  be  held  that  such 
poems  as  these  were  felt  to  be  lyric,  then  the  ques- 
tion is  answered  at  once,  as  for  all  other  lyric  verse. 
But  gnomic  verse  was  originally  the  expression  of  a 
rudimentary  philosophy,  and  it  came,  I  believe,  to 
constitute  a  distinct  type.^ 

It  may  be  objected  that  no  aristocratic  circle,  or 
for  that  matter  any  audience,  would  listen  to  didactic 
remarks  rolled  off  by  elongated  periods  in  a  sonorous 
voice ;  that  dullness  would  have  debarred  such  a 
recital.  The  first  point  arising  in  answer  to  such 
objection  is  thnt  in  earliest  times  men  voluntarily 
listened  to  instruction  and  gave  ear  to  wisdom  for  its 
own  sake.-  But  we  may  dismiss  this  epoch,  an  epoch 
when  riddle  and  charms  and  gnomic  sayings  were 
fresh  and  new,  and  consider  only  that  time  when 
fixed  sententiousness  characterized  entertainment. 
Proverbial  lore,  generalizations,  dry  as  they  may  be, 
are  capable  of  numerous  applications :  a  clever  poet 
might,  by  speaking  mere  conventional  stereotyped 
phrases,  have  kept  his  audience  interested.  It  is 
possible  that  the  Beoimdf  poet  generalized  with 
concrete  examples  before  him :  for  instance,  when 
he  urged  loyalty  among  kindred,  detestation  of 
treachery,  and  the  like ;  although  in  this  poem  I 
believe,  as  I  have  said  above,  that  the  generalizations 

>  "  Spriiche  "  were  said,  not  sung,  says  Weinhold,  op.  cit.,  p.  343. 

^  "Of  one  thing  I  am  sure,"  says  Professor  Gummere  in  a  private 
letter,  "  the  commonplace  of  pofjterity  is  often  the  oracular  and  startling 
word  of  wisdom  for  the  fathers." 


72  GNOMIC  POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

are  conventional,  without  intended  application.  In 
later  times,  an  ingenious  poet  has  written  a  sequence 
of  stanzas  composed  of  proverb  after  proverb ;  ^  the 
total  is  not  altogether  v/ithout  picturesque  interest, 
for  the  reader  looks  through  the  eyes  of  the  court 
circle  whom  the  jester  addresses.  "  Platitudes  can 
be  of  intense  interest  if  they  approach  our  case," 
remarks  Mr.  George  Meredith,^  who  in  so  saying  but 
echoes  the  words  of  Aristotle,  "  One  great  help 
which  maxims  lend  in  speaking  arises  from  the  vul- 
garity of  the  hearers  [that  is,  their  love  of  the 
commonplace].  The}'  are  delighted  when  a  general 
statement  of  the  speaker  hits  those  ophiions  which 
they  hold  in  a  particular  case."  ^ 

If  it  be  granted,  tentatively  even,  that  gnomic 
poems  existed  other  than  those  left  to  us,  it  will 
perhaps  be  conceded  to  be  possible  that  having  swung 
into  the  circle  of  entertainment,  they  were  spoken  by 
a  wise  man,  an  affectedly  wise  man,  or  finally,  per- 
haps, by  one  who  bm-lesqued  wisdom.  If  there  were 
no  such  figure  on  record,  we  might  conclude  that  the 
usual  entertamer  spoke  lines  befitting  the  ancient 
greybeard,  and  mimicked  an  all-wise  dwarj.  But 
there  is  an  entertainer  mentioned,  in  whose  moith 
such  poetry  is  eminently  fitting,  the  Pidr  of  Old 
Norse,  the  Mjle  of  Anglo-Saxon. 

I  am  not  forgetful  that  "little  definite  is  known 
regarding  the  functions  of  the  Northern  )>ulr,"  and 

1  The  Jester's  Sermon,  cited  from  Thorabury's  Songs  of  the  Cavalien 
and  Boxindheads  in  The  Court  Fool,  J.  Doran,  London,  1858,  p.  97. 

2  One  of  Our  Conquerors,  Revised  Edition,  1903,  p.  372. 

»  lihet.,  II,  xri.  Jebb's  translation,  Edition  of  Sandys,  Cambridge, 
1909,  p.  115. 


INTRODUCTION  73 

that  it  is  held  by  some  writers  that  "  commentators 
have  regarded  him  too  seriously."  But  among  the 
latest  discussions,  one  by  P.  S.  Allen,^  who  dis- 
misses him  thus  briefly,  uses  citations  which  seem  to 
me  to  operate  against  his  point  of  view.  It  can  do 
no  harm,  at  least,  here  to  set  forth  what  is  known, 
and  to  draw  conclusions,  conservatively  as  one  must. 

According  to  Cleasby-Vigfusson,  749,  the  word 
pulr  is  defined,  "  A  sayer  of  saws,  a  wise  man,  a 
sage  (a  bard?).  This  word,  the  technical  meaning 
of  which  is  not  known,  occurs  on  a  Danish  runic 
stone  —  Hruhald's  j)ular  a  Salhaugum.  Thorsen  17." 
Then  follows  a  list  of  citations  from  the  Edda  where 
the  pair  is  referred  to.  Axel  Olrik  gives  the  brief 
definition,  "  a  preacher  or  moral  teacher,"  "  ein  ver- 
kiinder  religioser  oder  moralischer  lehren."  ^ 

But  let  us  see  what  light  we  get  from  the  occur- 
rence of  the  word  in  the  lays  of  the  Edda,  and  let  us 
begin  with  the  reference  which  might  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  commentators  have  taken  the  /mlr  too  seri- 
ously. After  Sigurd  has  killed  Fafnir,  the  first  Pie 
speaks  of  Regin  as  hdra  pul  (old  gossip,  —  literally, 
hoary  counselor). ^  I  take  this  to  be  a  degenerate 
meaning.  A  vvise  man  is  old :  *  increase  of  age  re- 
sults gradually  in  decrease  of  vital  wisdom  :  garrulity, 
babbling,  usurp  the  place  of  former  wise  sayings  :  the 
title  remains,  howevsr,  and"  the  wise  man  "  is  applied 

1  The  Mediceval  Mimus,  iu  M.  Ph.,  VII,  835. 

*  Nordisches  Geistesleben,  translated  by  W.  Ranisch,  Heidelberg, 
1908,  p.  113. 

8  Ffifnesm'iil,  stanza  34,  S.-G.,  I,  330. 

*  The  foul  Starkad  is  designated  by  the  epithet  senex.  Cf.  Holder,  op. 
cit.,  pp.  r.»0,  l(t8,  etc. 


74  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

to  one  no  longer  ^vise.  Hence,  the  garrulous  Regin 
is  dubbed  hdra  /Ail  by  the  ironic  Pie.  This  is  not 
greatly  different  from  the  view  of  Ranisch,^  who 
thinks  the  term  here  has  become  one  of  reproach, 
that  it  mirrors  the  decline  of  the  old  singer's  position 
and  of  his  loss  in  dignity.  In  Vafprupnesmol^.  Odin 
is  named  "  old  sage,"  gamle  pulr^  by  his  opponent  in 
the  riddle  contest ;  in  HovamoL^  as  master  of  runes 
he  is  named  "  the  mighty  wise  man,"  jivibolfoulr .'^  In 
Hovamol^  also  occurs  the  line,  "  Mt^l  es  at  J^ylja  f>ular 
stole  ^,"  indicating  that  the  sage  sat  in  a  definitely 
appointed  seat.  It  is  significant,  moreover,  that  the 
poem  is  thus  labeled  the  product  of  a  Mdr.  Or  if  the 
part  of  the  poem  in  which  this  line  occurs  be  held 
a  distinct  production,  the  Lesson  of  Loddfafmr^  then 
it  is  significant  that  the  king's  court  contained  just 
such  a  man  as  the  runic  stone  commemorates,  a  wise 
man  who  counseled  the  monarch.  According  to 
Sijmons-Gering,"  the  Loddfafnesmol  is  the  single 
poem  [among  Eddie  lays]  for  which  we  are  to  accept 
a  Pulr  as  author,  —  one  of  those  people  who  exhibited 
their  experience  and  knowledge  before  the  circle  of 
the  prince  and  aristocracy.  "  lie  warns  against  impru- 
dence, gives  rules  for  journey  and  drink,  recommends 
sincerity,  friendship,  generosity  with  measure,  honor 
to  the  old.     He  refers  to  himself  and  his  calling  in 

1  Fddalieder,  Leipzig,  1903,  p.  11. 

2  Stanza  8,  S,-G.,  I,  5(3. 

8  Stanza  142,  S.-G.,  I,  49. 

♦  "  ...  und  in  diesem  arat  liegt  0)>inns  rolle  ala  freund  der  skaiden 
und  ais  gott  der  dichtkunst  beschlossen."  — Fr.  Kauffinann,  in  Philolo- 
gische  Studien,  Halle,  1890,  p.  100. 

6  Stanza  110,  S.-G.,  I,  42. 

*  Op.  cit.,  I,  clxviii. 


INTRODUCTION  75 

counseling   against  laughter  as  the   gray  /i/Z,  since 

wise  words  often  come  from  the  faltering  lips  of  the 

aged  "  : 

at  iK^rom  ))ul  hlse[)'u]  aldrege, 

opt's  gdtt  {>ats  gamier  kve)»a ; 

opt  6r  skQipom  belg  skilen  orp  koma.* 

Miillenhoff,  who  first  considered  at  length  the  func- 
tions of  the  puUr,  seems  to  be  right  in  concluding 
that  runes,  chann-songs,  and  incantations,  —  all  old 
knowledge,  —  belonged  preeminently  to  a  branch  of 
these  wise  folk  ;  but  he  goes  too  far  in  asserting  that 
they  were  the  fosterers  of  the  entire  poetic  remains 
of  the  North.2  His  view  meets  with  flat  contradic- 
tion in  the  '.vork  of  Sijmons-Gering.' 

Mogk,  in  summarizing  and  commenting  on  Mlil- 
lenhoff's  attempt  to  differentiate  the  pulr  from  the 
skald,  observes  that  the  oldest  Norse  understood  the 
fiulr  to  be  a  man  who  distinguished  himself  through 
wise  sayings,  resting  on  tradition  or  experience*  He 
remarks  that  the  difference  between  the  lays  of  the 
Edda  and  the  sagas  is  mainly  that  the  former  deal  in 
myth  and  phantasy,  the  latter  in  history.  Therefore, 
he  says,  since  the  Eddie  lays  contain  more  or  less 
mythologic  and  worldly  wisdom,  we  might  as  well 
name  then  poets  pidir.  At  the  same  time,  he  thinks 
it  questionable  whether  the  Icelanders  had  this  des- 
ignation  for  their   poets  :    in   one   definite  instance 

1  S.-G.,  I,  47. 

2  D.A.K.,  V,  280-290. 

8".  .  .  dass  'auch  die  heldendichtung  in  den  alten- bereich  der 
>>ulir 'gelidrt  habe,  ist  uneriaubt."  —  Op.  cit.,  I,  clxvii. 

*  "  Wer  also  dii  weisheit  frUlierer  geschlechter  in  poetischer  form 
llberliefert,  istein>alr."  —  Oeschichte  der  N'orwegisch-Isldndischen  Lit- 
eratur,  Stni83burg,"1004,  p.  21. 


76  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

(  VoJsunga  Saga,  Chapter  XXX)  the  poet  of  the  Eddie 
lays  is  named  skald,  and  since  the  work  of  the  sagas 
\a  not  vastly  dissimilar  from  that  in  the  Edda, 
^ve  may  conclude  that  the  />idir  were  simply,  the 
sl'alds.^ 

Now,  Mullenholl's  belief  that  all  the  old  lays  are 
due  to  the  />idir,  and  Mogk's  opinion  that  the  Aidir  were 
the  same  as  the  skalds  seem  to  need  revision.  The 
Aidr  may  have  been  no  more  than  a  skald,  as  Mogk 
thinks,  —  but  if  so,  then  I  believe  he  was  a  definite 
kind  of  skald,  —  one  who  preserved  the  wise  sayings 
of  the  people,  gnomic  wisdom  arising  from  tradition 
and  experience,  but  not  all  mythology  and  phantasy. 
If,  then,  the  />ulr  was  this  definitely  limited  skald,  ob- 
^dously  he  is  not  to  be  accredited,  as  Miillenhoff  con- 
cludes, with  the  composition  of  the  entire  Edda. 

Let  us  see  whether  we  get  any  light  by  a  consideration 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  pijle.  fyle  is  defined  by  Bosworth- 
Toller,  p.  1084,  as  "  orator,  statesman."  That  he  v/as 
a  wise  man  also  is  revealed  in  the  first  citation, 
from  Liher  Scintdlamm,-  p.  119, 1.3  :  "  GelSred  ))yle 
fela  spaJca  mid  eawum  wordum  geopenaj>"  which  is  the 
gloss  to  "  doctus  orator  plures  sermones  paucis  verbis 
aperit."  A  reference,  without  doubt,  to  sententious 
speaking, even  if  "orator "be construed  without  the  pos- 
sible connotation  in  "  doctus."    Besides  /•yle  as  a  proper 

1  "  Werden  danu  weiler  dichtor  der  Eddalieder  als  sk&ld,  skalden  al9 
>ulir  bezeicbnet,  so  kanu  zwiscben  beiden  auch  kein  standesunterschied 
gewesen  sein." —  Op.  ciL,  p.  22. 

2  Cf.  E.  E.  T.  S.,  XCIII.  The  Liber  is  of  the  eighth  century,  a  date 
not  inliarmonious  with  other  details  that  point  to  the  time  of  composition  of 
gnomic  verses  in  Anglo-Saxon.  That  is,  just  such  a  "  doctas  orator  "  aa 
i5  here  glossed  "geh'Grcd  )>yle  "  may  have  recited  the  verses  \:\  the  eighth 
century,  and  they  may  have  been  written  down  but  very  little  later. 


INTRODUCTION  77 

name  in  Widsithy^  we  ^nd  the  word  in  Beowulf yV^here 
Unferth,  "  yle  Hrothgares,"  is  mentioned  several 
times.  In  lines  499-500  and  1166-1167,  he  is  placed 
at  the  feet  of  the  monarch,  and  he  is  again  referred 
to  in  1457.  It  was  evidently  his  duty  to  lead  the 
conversation,  since  he  is  the  only  one  of  the  courtiers 
who  crossed  words  \\ith  Beowulf,  as  he  did  in  taunt- 
ing Beowulf  over  his  swimming  match  with  Breca. 
Unferth  is  hardly  the  sco]?  of  Hrothgar,  who  recites 
a  lay  1065-1160,  just  before  the  second  mention  of 
the  />i/le ;  nor  is  he,  apparently,  the  poet  of  line  4966- 
497a.  He  was  a  contentious  hero,  grudging  Beowulf 
his  fame ;  he  had  not  behaved  well  toward  his  relations, 
and  yet  he  was  a  man  in  whom  the  king  and  queen 
placed  confidence.' 

As  professional  orator  and  counselor,  the  Ayle  of 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  probably  occupied  an 
important  position  at  court.  It  is  likely,  according  to 
the  comment  of  Sijmons-Gering,  that  the  Old  Norse 
/>ulir  also  formed  part  of  the  retinues  of  little  princes 
and  chiefs.^  Men  of  experience,  skilled  in  relations 
of  actual  life,  familiar  with  the  wisdom  of  the  time, 


1 24 :  {:^eodric  wCold  Froncuin,  Jjyle  llondinginn.  It  is  possible,  however, 
that  the  correct  translation  of  this  line  may  be  :  "  Theodric  ruled  the  spear- 
men, pyle  (Ills  retainer)  the  shieldmen."  "  Now  both  the  treacherous 
Iring  and  the  nameless  faithful  counsellor  seem  to  belong  to  the  class  of 
retainer  known  in  Old  English  society  a.s  thyle :  the  professional  orator 
andcouiisellor.  .  .  .  It  is,  therefore,  remarkable,  as  Miillenhoff  noted  long 
ago,  .  .  .  that  in  our  list  thyle  of  the  Rondings  is  coupled  with  Theodric 
of  the  Franks.  Thyle  as  a  prope.-  name  is  in  any  case  strange  enough  : 
can  we  interpret  it  as  referring  to  the  faithful  counsellor  of  the  Thuringian 
war?  "  —  R.  W.  Chambers,  op.  nit.,  p.  114. 

'^Cf.  MiillcnhojJ',  op.  cU.,  I,  26  fl.,  and  A.  Olrik,  Datxmarka  Jleltedigt- 
ning,  I.  25  ff. 

"  Op.  fit.,  I,  clxix. 


78  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

especially  -^itli  the  mythological  treasure  of  wisdom, 
they  were  spokesmen  on  solemn  occasions,  and  guard- 
ians of  spiritual  interests.  And,  above  all,  the  begin- 
nings of  mythologic  and  gnomic  poetry  may  have 
arisen  from  their  circle.^ 

With  regard  to  the  form,  it  is  always  to  be  remem- 
bered that  '•'  gnomic  verse "  may  refer  to  poetic  com- 
positions, not  necessarily  gnomic  in  the  sense  in  which 
the  word  has  hitherto  been  used  in  this  introduction. 

1  The  position  of  Unferth  at  the  king's  feet,  his  character,  and  his  style 
of  conversation  are  characteristics  not  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  later  court 
fools. 

There  is  a  questionable  piece  of  evidence,  which  strengthens  this  obser- 
vation, one  which  if  unquestioned  would  put  the  resemblance  a,bove  mere 
coincidence.  In  Wriglit-Wtilker's  Vocabularies,  occurs  the  Latin  "  de 
scurris,"  glossed  by  "  hof  ^V'lum."  If  this  word  may  be  read  de  scurris  = 
of'^dum  (=  t^yjinn)  or  hoftSijlnm,  Rosworlh-ToUer  concludes  that  the 
function  of  the  pyle  may  have  been  something  like  that  of  the  later  court 
jester,  "  and  moreover  tlie  attack  of  Unferth  on  Beowulf  hardly  contradicts 
the  supposition."  This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  the  hisloiy  of  the 
court  fool ;  but  a  few  examples  may  be  adduced  to  show  a  possible  con- 
nection between  him  and  the  pyle  ov  pulr.  (Some  writers  maintain  that 
skalds  degenerated  into  court  fools  :  the  resemblances  I  observe  hold,  of 
course,  for  skalds,  if  the  /)uUr  are  not  marked  out  as  a  distinct  class  of 
skalds.  My  point  is  that  the  old  speaker  of  wise  sayings  shows  kinship 
with  the  jester. ) 

In  As  Ton  Like  It,  Act  III,  scene  2,  Touchstone  answers  sententiously 
Corin's  question,  "  —  how  do  you  like  this  shepherd's  life  ?  "  and  in  turn 
ends  his  speech  with  the  words,  "  Hast  any  philosophy  in  thee,  shepherd?  " 
Touchstone  himself  is  a  philosopher :  he  makes  rhymes  ;  he  remembers 
old  verses  ;  he  is  "swift  and  sententious."  In  Tioelfth  Xight,  the  clown 
Feste  preaches  and  quotes  Latin  ;  in  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  Villio  or 
The  Double  Marriage,  there  is  also  a  philosophical  fool.  Like  the  didactic 
speakers  in  Old  Norse,  these  fools  say  with  impunity  what  they  will  to 
their  superiors. 

Since  it  is  futile,  however,  to  look  for  an  unbroken  line  of  descent,  or  to 
attempt  to  find  in  a  later  office  the  exact  counterpart  of  an  earlier  one,  we 
may  remark  two  other  conclusions :  resemblances  between  //yle  and  fool 
may  lie  in  their  official  positions  rather  than  in  tlieir  expressions  ;  resem- 
blances are  found  between  counselors^  of  the  later  time  and  those  of  the 
earlier  period,  —  for  example,  Polonius  might  fittingly  illustrate  a  latter 
day,  somewhat  degenerate  />ulr. 


INTRODUCTION  79 

Metrically,  Ilovam^l^  VafintAnesmol,  AUissmoly  and 
Grimnesmol,  to  name  no  other  Old  Norse  poems,  are 
all  gnomic.  That  is  to  say,  just  as  elegiac  verse, 
the  strain  of  lament,  was  used  in  Greece  by 
Solon  for  the  enunciation  of  moral  sentences,  so  in 
Old  Norse  hymnic  verse  was  adapted  to  gnomic  utter- 
ance. And  just  as  this  Greek  paroemiac  verse,  or 
verse  used  for  the  expression  of  proverbs,  consisted  of 
&  distich  made  by  combining  a  hexameter  Hne  with  a 
following  pentameter  line,  so  gnomic  verse  in  Old 
Norse  consisted  of  a  long  line  followed  by  a  short 
line:  the  Ijodahdttr  couplet.^  Since  gnomic  verse 
meter  is  closely  related  to  that  which  lies  at  the 
foundation  of  the  Greek  hexameter,  it  is  possible  that 
the  form  is  a  heritage  of  the  Indo-Germanic  period. 

Now,  just  as  the  hexameter  in  Greece  ultimately 
came  to  be  regarded  the  most  popular  form  for  moral 
verses,  so  the  long  line  was  preferred  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
even  an  extended  line.  The  Cotton  and  Exeter 
gnomes  show  a  large  percentage  of  extra  feet.  Yet 
even  in  Anglo-Saxon  the  short  line  was  occasionally 
used,2  and  sometimes  the  Ijo'Jahdttr,  as  in  Old  Norse. 

But  gnomic  sentences  are  probably  not  the  earliest 
province  of  this  verse,  at  least  in  Teutonic  literature. 
It  is  found  in  the  Wessohrunner  Gehet,  and  in  the 
oldest  Anglo-Saxon  Charms,  and  is  used  more  in  the 
Edda  for  the  hymnic  lyric  than  for  gnomic  poetry.' 

*  "  .  .  .  with  the  same  effect  of  clinching  the  meaning  of  the  first  line." 
—  W.  P.  Ker,  Epic  and  Romance,  London,  1897,  p.  150. 

2  See  pp.  120,  126,  120. 

'  A  further  discussion  of  gnomic  verse  measure  would  be  dispropor- 
tionate. But  for  the  benefit  of  those  interested  in  pursuing  the  investiga- 
tion, I  append  the  following  bibliography  :   tjber  Germanischen  Versbau, 


80  GNOMIC   PEOTRY    IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

In  this  introduction  I  have  indicated  that  the 
gnomic  saying  is  a  universal  form  of  literature,  which, 
in  its  earliest  expression  among  Germanic  peoples 
— like  riddle  and  charm — celebrates  phenomena  of  the 
natural  world.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  employed 
for  purposes  of  teaching :  it  promulgates  px'inciples 
of  law  and  morality ;  in  short,  is  the  vehicle  of  the 
ethical  code.  Preliminary  to  the  collections  from 
Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  I  have  drawn  examples  from  the 
Eddie  lays  of  Gods  and  heroes  and  have  tabulated 
the  subjects  of  which  they  treat.  Early  heathen 
poetry  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  whether  epic  or  lyric, 
reveals  a  similar  list  of  subjects,  as  the  citations  and 
summaries  show.  Prominent  are  gnomes  on  caution 
and  courage,  woes  and  wisdom  of  men,  the  value  of 
friends  and  the  inevitability  of  fate.  Poetry  in  which 
ecclesiastical  writers  had  a  hand  also  contains  gnomes, 
though  the  gnomic  form  is  often  weakened  by  append- 
ages of  Christian  doctrine.  Gnomic  material  found 
in  Christian  didactic  poetry  appears  to  be  a  heritage 
from  the  East,  but  sententious  elements  in  narra- 
tive poetry  —  Exodus,  Daniel,  Andreas,  for  instance 
—  bear  unmistakable  similarity  to  earlier  gnomes  of 
Germanic  origin.  Such  poems  were  evidently  com- 
posed by  writers  who  were  at  once  familiar  with  the 
old  moral  truths  and  the  new  theology.  In  some 
cases  the  ethical  codes  were  not  dissimilar,  in  some 
instances  they  closely  resembled  each  other,  in  other 
instances  the  two  systems  were  reconciled  by  the  poet. 

A.  Heusler,  Berlin,  18U4,  pp.  93  G.  Der  LjupaMltr,  eine  metrische 
Untersiichung,  A.  lleusler,  Berlin,  1889.  t/ber  tStil  und  Typns  der  isl&n- 
dischen  Saga,  Doring,  Leipzig,  1877,  pp.  31-40.  Meyer,  op.  cit.,  pp.  326  ff. 
Koegel,  op.  cit.,  pp.  06  ff. 


INTRODUCTION  81 

He  added  to  such  heathen  sayings  as  "  Many  are  the 
woes  of  men,"  the  injunctions  to  prepare  for  death,  to 
escape  tlie  yawning  pit,  to  be  ready  for  the  judgment. 
With  the  increase  of  sermonizing,  there  resulted  a 
corresponding  decrease  of  gnomic  expression. 

And  having  reached  these  conclusions,  we  may  turn 
to  the  more  minute  study  of  the  Gnomic  Verses, 


DETAILED     ':;ONS  I  DERATION     OF     EXETER 
GNOMES    AND   COTTON  GNOMES 

I 

Exeter  Gnomes 

Beginning  slightly  below  the  middle  of  folio  88b, 
the  gnomic  poems  of  the  Exeter  Book  extend  through 
92a,  with  an  overflow  of  five  words  on  92b.  Respec- 
tively preceding  and  following  the  collection  are  the 
Various  Fortunes  of  Men  and  the  Wonders  of  Creation. 
Distinct  headings  indicate  three  divisions  (in  this 
work  A,  B,  and  C),  the  first  word  of  each  being  writ- 
ten in  Roman  square  capitals  with  a  large  initial  letter. 
Between  conseciitive  divisions  occurs  the  usual  space 
of  two  lines.  The  Hiberno-Saxon  palaeography  belongs 
probably  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,^  about 
the  time  Bishop  Leofric  was  transferred  from  Crediton 
to  Exeter,  or  shortly  after  his  domiciliation  in  the 
latter  town.  Among  the  books  he  gave  to  the 
Cathedral,  this  volume  was  one  prepared  in  all  likeli- 
hood under  his  immediate  supervision.  It  is  the  work 
of  one  scribe  throughout,  therefore  the  folios  here  un- 
der consideration  exhibit  characteristics  that  are  found 
in  the  manuscript  as  a  whole.''* 

1  "  Aufange  des  11  jahrhunderta,"  Schipper,  op.  cit.,  p.  327  ;  Wlilker, 
G-rund,  p.  223  ;  but  Thorpe  places  it  in  ihe  10th  century,  op.  eit.,  p.  v ; 
and  cf,  GoUancz,  Cynewulfs  Christ,  London,  1892,  p.  xxi. 

'^  As  1  for  and,  u  for  um,  etc. 

83 


84  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN  ANGLO-SAXON 

Although  these  folios  have  not  excited  the  vivid 
interest  that  other  parts  of  the  book  have  aroused,  yet 
a  certain  recognition  has  been  granted  them  from  the 
time  of  the  first  modern  mention  of  the  manuscript. 
Hickes  observed  preliminary  to  his  transcript  of  lines 
72-144  that  they  are  similar  to  the  dithyramb  (sic)  of 
the  Cotton  Manuscript,  "  baud  dissimile,"  though  cor- 
rupt at  the  beginning  and  the  end.^  Wanley,  in  his 
fantastic  summary,  grouped  folios  84b-98  as  Liber  IX, 
and  naively  noted,  "  fere  totus  est  in  aenigmatibus."  ^ 
J.  J.  Conybeare,  though  following  Wanley's  arbitrary 
division  of  the  folios,  criticized  this  description  as  ap- 
plying correctly  to  no  part  of  Liber  IX;^  but  as  hav- 
ing been  suggested  by  the  obscurity  and  difficulty 
of  its  actual  contents/  He  accompanied  his  tran- 
scription of  lines  72-84  with  a  fair  Latin  and  a- 
wretched  English  translation.^  In  classing  the  verses 
as  moral  and  didactic,''  tlie  editor,  W.  D.  Conybeare, 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  critic  to  apply  a  distinctive 
title.  He  characterized  them  as  a  "  series  of  maxims 
and  descriptions,  thrown  together  with  little  or  no 
connection,  in  the  manner  of  the  gnomic  poetry  of 
the  Greeks  ;  or  .  .  .  resembling  the  .  .  .  Book  of 
Proverbs." 

Thorpe  particularized  Conybeare's  generalization, 
by  observing  that  the  gnomic  verses  are  akin  to  the 
Sentences  of  Theognis  and  the  Works  and  Days  of 
Hesiod,  but  he  did  not  regard  them  as  descended 
from  the  Greeks.     He  thought,  rather,  these  "  similar 

1  Op.  cit.,  I,  221.  2  7?„i2.,  II,  279.  «  Op.  cit.,  p.  204. 

*  These  are  ]Vidsith,  Fortunes,  Gnomes,  Wonders  of  Creation,  Riming 
Poem,  Panther,  UTiaZe,  Fragment. 

6  Op.  cit.,  p.  228.  « Ibid.y  p.  Ixxi. 


EXETER    GNOMES   AND   COTTON   GNOMES  85 

productions  of  the  ancient  world  originated  in  a  state 
of  society  common  to  every  people  at  a  certain  period 
of  civilization,"  ^  a  view  consistent  with  scholarly 
opinion  to-day.  Thorpe  further  observed  that  they 
are  of  a  class  similar  to  the  Hgvamol ;  so  far  as 
I  have  noticed  he  was  the  first  to  make  the  com- 
parison. Ettmiiller  printed  lines  61-71,  72-138, 
139-192  under  the  title  Ealdcvidas,^  for  the  first  time 
bringing  the  Cotton  G-nomes  and  Exeter  Gnomes  under 
one  heading.  In  his  preface,'^  he  classes  them  as 
^'carmina  popularia"  under  the  broader  title  "  Car- 
jiiina  quae  feruntur  didactica."  ^  His  notes  and 
emendations  are  here  and  there  helpful ;  but  in  places 
they  do  violence  to  the  text.^ 

After  Ettmiiller,  besides  those  editors  and  critics 
mentioned  in  connection  ^\ith  the  Cotton  GnoDies, 
other  scholars  have  incidentally  dropped  a  word  here 
and  there  or  written  a  brief  paragraph  or  two  regarding 
the  Exeter  material.  Their  several  contributions  will 
be  dulv  noted  under  the  consideration  of  date  and 
authorship. 

As  others  have  stated,  analysis  of  the  contents  re- 
veals only  an  embryonic  organism,  an  organic  struc- 
ture probably  more  fancied  than  real,  a  creation  of  the 
reader  rather  than  of  the  writer.  But  such  analvsis 
may  at  least  find  the  elements  out  of  which  the 
gnomes  were  fashioned. 

I     1  Op.  cif.,  p.  v=ii.  2  (>,.  crt.,  p.  280.  8/6id.,  p.  xix. 

*  Further  :  "  proverbiorum  collectiones  nominandae  sunt,  varia  pro- 
vcrbia  alliterationis  tantum  vinculo  conjuucta  continentis." 

*  Moreover,  the  typography  abounds  in  errors. 


86  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


The  beginning,  "Question  me  skilfully,"  morien- 
tarily  promises  a  riddle  contest  such  as  is  found  in 
Vafpni/Mesmql,  Almssmql,  Solomon  and  SaturUy  or 
Tragemundslkd ;  at  least,  a  reader  expects  question 
and  answer.  But  there  are  no  questions,  unless  they 
are  implicit  or  have  become  absorbed.  "  God  shall 
first  be  praised,"  for  example,  may  have  been  given  in 
reply  to  the  query,  "  Who  shall  first  be  praised  ? "  and 
so  on  for  the  other  statements.  In  an  older  version 
there  may  have  been  volleys  of  question  and  answer 
resulting  in  a  poem  of  dual  nature,  such  as  the  dra- 
matic beginning  anticipates.  Later,  the  dialogue 
may  have  been  discarded  and  only  the  contents  pre- 
served. Again,  it  may  be  that  instead  of  question 
and  answer,  the  poem  showed  a  gnomic  see-saw  of 
two  wise  men  balancing  their  wisdom.^  Such  a  view 
is  not  improbable:  the  utterance  of  proverbs  or 
maxims  demanded  the  same   brain-play  as   did  the 

1  This  is  the  view  held  by  Mlillcr  (cf.  op.  cit.,  p.  13  ff.)  who  teases 
out  tlie  fibrils  of  speeches,  duly  assigning  them  to  Speaker  1  and  Speaker 
2.  His  arguments  for  two  speakers  are  :  1.  The  antithetic  character  of 
the  speeclies  as  a  natural  development  in  speech  between  two  persons ; 
2.  the  expansion  of  themes  sounded  by  one  and  taken  up  by  the  other. 
Admitting  the  difficulty  of  giving  an  accurate  interpretation  of  the  dia- 
logue, he  makes  the  attempt.  For  instance,  A  begins  :  Frige  mec,  etc. 
B  continues,  ne  Ixt  .  .  .  ge/>ohtas.  A  begins,  Gliawe  men.  ...  B 
takes  it  up,  God  sceal  vion  .  .  .  and  develops  the  idea  in  lines  6  and  6. 
It  will  be  observed  that  Mliller  looks  upon  the  beginning  as  an  essential 
part  of  the  whole.  I  do  not  see  how  it  is  possible  to  agree  absolutely 
with  his  attributions,  even  if  one  were  disposed  to  accept  his  theory. 
Can  anything  but  arbitrariness  mark  off  so  much  for  Speaker  A  or 
Speaker  B  ?  IMoreover,  his  argument  for  two  speakers  is  weak.  Anglo- 
Saxon  verse  is  by  nature  antithetic,  and  expansion  may  be  due  to  poetic 
elaboration  of  prose  maxims  and  to  interpolations. 


EXETER  GNOMES  AND   COTTON  GNOMES  87 

propounding  and  solution  of  riddles.*  On  the  whole, 
however,  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with  Rieger,  Strobl,^ 
and  Brandl  in  thinking  that  the  beginning  frame- 
work, though  suggestive  of  tongue-play  or  a  "  flyt- 
ing,"  was  given  up  almost  at  once.  In  the  first  place, 
there  is  no  sound  argument  that  one  can  adduce 
fi'om  the  content  for  the  presence  of  two  speakers ;  in 
the  second  place,  the  poem  seems  to  indicate  an  exer- 
cise of  verse  technic  built  out  of  gnomic  material. 
The  ^ilir  of  the  Old  Norse  recited  proverbs  and 
oracles  as  well  as  songs  from  their  position  in  the 
royal  hall ;  the  Anglo-Saxon  /^yJe  may  have  used  this 
introduction  as  a  playful  dramatic  device  for  establish- 
ing a  bond  between  him  and  his  audience.^  It  is 
also  to  be  remembered  that  personal  references  are 
numerous  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  as  in  Seafarer,  TJie 
Banished  Wifes  Lament,  TJie  Husband's  Message,  and 
Widsilh;  also  that  notwithstanding  attempts  to  make 
balanced   lays   or   dialogue  poems  out   of  the   first 

^  Cf.  Some  Forms  of  the  Riddle  Question  and  the  Exercise  of  the  Witt 
in  Popular  Fiction  and  Formal  Literature,  R.  Schevill,  Berkeley,  Cal.^ 
1911.     See  esp.  pp.  204-205. 

2  Strobl  sees  a  strong  contrast  between  the  introduction  and  the  rest 
of  the  poem.  He  thinks  the  former  to  be  the  beginning  of  a  *•  wettlied," 
which  the  gnome  collector  prefixed  to  his  verses,  and  that  it  i» 
unlikely  that  a  poet  would  compose  an  introduction  which  stands  in  such 
total  opposition  to  the  sequence.  Ke  thinks,  however,  that  the  first  four 
lines  prove  the  existence  of  balanced  poems  in  AS.  literature.  Brandl 
seems  to  difler  but  slightly  from  this  point  of  view  in  remarking  that  the 
start  of  a  dialoguo  between  two  wise  men  "  ohne  weiteres  vergessen 
wird." 

*  Merbot  thinks  ttie  beginning  of  a  riddle  contest  is  indicated,  and  that 
gid  may  signify  "  riddle,"  but  he  adds  :  "  Doch  macht  die  vielbedeutigkeit 
von  gid  diese  au.slcgung  zweifelhaft,  denn  man  konnte  gid  an  eben  dieser 
Btelle  in  einer  andern  ihra  eigentUralichen  bedeutung,  ausspruch,  weisheits- 
spruch  fassen." — Aesthetische  Studien  zur  angelsdchsischen  Poesie^. 
Breslau,  1883,  p.  20. 


88  GNOMIC  POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

named,  and  to  relate  the  Lament  and  the  Message  as 
parts  of  a  whole,  so  far  the  idea  of  one  speaker  in  the 
Seafarer  has  the  balance  of  authority,  the  love  lyrics 
are  taken  as  individual  units,  and  the  personal  ele- 
ment is  regarded  as  dramatic  appeal  to  the  reader. 
Widsith  is  not  without  his  value  in  the  history  of  the 
drama.^ 

Lines  1-36  Strobl  marks  off  as  "  geistliche  spriiche." 
Brandl  observes  that  46-138  are  Christian  with  inci- 
dental "bekllmpfung"  of  the  heathen. ^  Miiller  sees 
two  large  sections :  1-44  ;  45-72.  God  is  dominant 
in  the  first,  his  power  and  man's  trausitoriness  are  ac- 
cented ;  the  relations  of  human  beings  to  one  another 
are  defined  in  the  second,  —  God  is  not  mentioned.^ 

If  we  break  up  the  group  more  minutely,  the  mix- 
ture of  heathen  and  Christian  elements  will  become 
more  apparent.  46-18a  show  Christian  influence : 
God  is  "  our  Father ;  "  he  is  not  affected  by  the  Fates, 
disease,  nor  age;  he  is  the  Ahnighty.  186-25a  are 
old  gnomes  ■*  wherein  objects  and  qualities  are  paired  : 
the  wise  shall  meet  with  the  wise  ;  the  useful  shall 
be  with  the  useful ;  two  shall  be  mates.  256-34  re- 
flect on  the  passing  of  things  earthly  and  the  omni- 
science of  God,  who  alone  knows  whence  disease 
comes,  who  decreases  the  cliildren  of  earth  that  there 

»  The  Mediivval  ^'(arje,  E.  K.  Cliaiubor.s,  Oxford,  11)03,  I,  28  ff. 

*  Op.  cit.,  p.  0(50.  Ho  divides  the  Exeter  Gnomes  iuto  two  parts: 
1-1. -58  ;  130-20(5. 

8  05).  cit.,  p.  10. 

*  It  is  always  to  be  remembered,  however,  in  Anglo-Saxon  as  in 
Greek  Gnomic  Poetr)',  "  neither  commoii])hice  nor  di.sconnection  are  suf- 
ficient proof  of  spuriousuess,  and  ajjain  no  line  i.s  more  likely  to  l)e 
foisted  in  than  a  really  good  and  striking  line."  —  Cf.  Social  Greece,  J.  P. 
Mahaffy,  1874,  p.  83. 


EXETEa   GNOMES   AND   COTTON  GNOMES  89 

may  be  room  for  the  increase.  35-67  may  be 
grouped  together,  inasmuch  as  they  are  gnomes  dealing 
with  humanity :  the  foohsh  man  is  defined,  the  wise,  the 
rich,  the  poor,  the  happy  (35-39a);  a  little  discourse 
on  the  sorrows  of  the  blind  man  follows  (392>-44). 

With  the  exception  of  lSb-25a,  these  lines  are,  I 
believe,  the  expression  of  a  Christian  writer.  Eadig 
(37)  suggests  "blessed,"  rather  than  "wealthy"  (cf. 
108,  157),  a  meaning  acquired  under  the  influence  of 
Christianity.^  The  tone  of  the  line  and  its  neighbors, 
as  Brandl  suggests,  is  that  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount.  The  one  God,  whether  mcotucl  (29),  dryhten 
(35)  or  waldend  (43),  is  evidently  the  God  of  the 
Christians,  not  Woden  nor  another. 

From  44  on,  however,  the  tone  is  changed.  "  Lef 
mon  Iteces  behofaS  "  thrusts  a  gnomic  head  from  the 
mists  of  ancient  times.^  The  training  of  the  young 
man  is  enjoined  (456-50).  "  The  strong  of  mind  shall 
govern"  (51rt)  precedes  a  passage  on  stormy  weather, 
which,  in  turn,  leads  to  a  comparison  between  calm 
seas  and  people  without  strife  (51Z>-58).  Brandl 
remarks  that  58-71  appear  to  be  a  fragment  out  of 
the  courtly  heroic  time :  "  Strong  men  are  bold  by 
nature"  (59a),  "  A  king  is  desirous  of  power"  (596), 
antithesis   between   giver  and   taker  of   land  (60),' 

'Cf.  McGillivr.'iy,  The  Inllucnce  of  Christianity  on  the  Vocabulary  of 
Old  English,  Ihille,  11)02,  p."l51. 

2  Cf.  "  Sick  inou  are  for  skilful  leeches,  prodigals  for  prisoning,  fools 
for  teachers." — From  the  Jlilopadesa,  translated  by  Sir  Edwin  Arnold, 
op.  cit.y  p.  03.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  in  this  speech,  teachers 
are  placed  near  leeches.     Cf.  ioa  and  456. 

*  Conquered  land  was  at  first  shared  ;  later  the  king  took  a  special 
part  for  hiiuself. — EecktsalterthUmer,  Grimm,  24(3  £f.  Cited  by  Gum- 
mere,  Germanic  Origins,  p.  21)0. 


90  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

matching  of  glory  and  pride,  the  bold  and  the  brave 
(61),  places  of  the  leader,  the  cavalry,  and  the  infantry 
(63-G4a).  A  passage  on  woman  follows  (64&-G6), 
which  throws  light  on  her  position  and  standing 
among  Germanic  tribes,  and  is  in  keeping  with  tne 
reports  of  Tacitus  and  others.  The  shamed  man  is 
contrasted  with  the  pure  man  (67).  68-71  are  of 
the  highest  antiquity,  as  the  roughly  sketched  picture 
indicates :  the  prince  is  on  the  high  seat  surrounded 
by  his  comitatus  or  "  gesiSmcegen,"  the  treasure  (of 
golden  armlets  and  beakers)  awaits  distribution.  As 
each  man  receives  his  share,  the  hand  of  the  ruler  is 
laid  upon  his  head.  Concerning  the  dignity  of 
chiefs,  which  was  ranked  according  to  number  and 
strength  of  the  comitatus,  see  Gerraania,  XIII : 
"  Haec  dignitas  haj  vires,  magno  semper  electorum 
juvenum  globo  circumdari,  in  pace  decus  in  bello 
prtesidium.  Nee  solum  in  sua  gente  cuique,  sed 
apud  finitimas  quoque  civitates  id  nomen,  ea  gloria 
est,  si  numero  ac  virtute  comitatus  emineat :  ex- 
petuntur  enim  legationibiis,  et  muneribus  ornantur, 
et  ipsa  plerumque  fama  bella  profligant." 

B 

72-78a  are  gnomes  on  the  seasons,  which  recall 
Gn.  C,  36-8.  72«,  726,  73a,  are,  probably,  examples 
of  most  primitive  gnomic  expression.  This  fact  ap- 
pears to  be  further  established  by  the  number  of 
seasons.  Whereas  in  Gn.  C,  four  parts  of  the  year 
are  distinguished,  here  the  old  Germanic  division  into 
two  parts  only  is   manifest:  "winter  shall   go,  fair 


EXETER   GNOMES   AND   COTTON  GNOMES  91 

weather,  summer-liot,  return."  ^  78-81  are  unrelated 
sayings,  cleverly  dovetailed,  without  embellishment, 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  verse.  79  seems  half  to 
reveal  and  half  conceal  an  allusion  to  the  nether 
world  of  the  Teutons,  who  held  the  grave  to  be  the 
starting  point  of  the  underground  way  to  hell.  82-104 
treat  largely  of  women :  82-93  deal  with  the  duties  of 
king  and  queen,  the  latter  being  in  the  foreground ;  ^ 
956-100  form  the  famous  "  Frisian  woman  "  passage. 
Morley  thinks  it  may  have  been  a  snatch  of  sailor 
song;  in  any  case,  it  reflects  the  evidently  notable 
domestic  felicity  of  that  particular  tribe.^  94-9 5a 
are  out  of  context :  "a  ship  shall  be  nailed,*  a  shield 
bound."  That  is,  the  shield  shall  be  bound  with  hides. 
Compare  with  this  description,  Tacitus,  Annals,  11, 
14:  "ne  scuta  quidem  ferro  nervove  firmata,  sed 
viminum  textus  vel  tennis  et  fucatas  colore  tabulas." 
The  use  of  iron  was  litt'ic   known  among  the  early 

1  On  division  of  the  year,  cf.  Oermania,  XXVI ;  further  P.  Chantepie 
de  la  Sausiraye,  op.  cit.,  p.  380. 

"  On  the  pu-chaae  of  women,  Tacitus  says,  Oermania,  XVlII,  that  the 
woman  was  bought  honorably  with  a  dowry  of  oxen,  bridled  horse  and 
shield,  with  spear  cr  sword.  Just  as  those  gifts  were  intended  to  sym- 
bolize her  part  in  domestic  life  and  on  the  battlefield  —  for  in  the  older 
times  she  often  accompanied  her  husband  —  so  ihe  armlets  and  beakers 
appear  to  symbolize  a  later  state  of  society  in  which  the  activity  of  woman 
was  more  highly  specialized,  diversely  from  that  of  man.  As  the  warrior 
is  to  be  valorous,  so  is  his  wife  to  be  blithe  of  spirit  in  the  banquet  hall, 
whether  giving  treasure  or  serving  her  lord  with  the  first  tumbler  of  wine. 
At  the  same  time,  the  old  idea,  of  equality  is  present ;  they  two  shall  hold 
counsel  together, 

«  To  sell  wife  or  child  was  a  iast  resort  with  the  Frisians.     Cf.  Tacitus, 
'    Ann.,  LV,  72.     Quoted  by  Gumnere,  Oermanic  Origins,  p.  185. 

*  Cf.  Meyer,  op.  cit.,  p.  4'.)2  :  •■  Wir  sehen  nun  hier  auf  das  deutlichste, 
■    wie  das  epitheton  die  gewiinschte  beschaffenheit  des  hauptworts  voraus- 
nimmt.     Es   hiess   hier,  'das   schiff   soli  genagelt  sein '  —  und   '  nagled 
Bcip'  iat  eine  poetische  formel." 


♦92  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

,-Gennans,  although  it  will  be  remembered,  Becwnlf,  go- 
ing to  fight  the  dragon,  had  an  iron  shield  made  aa  an 
,.extra  precaution. ^     101-103  comment  on  faithful  and 
unfaithful  women:  the  woman  shall  hold  troth  with 
.her  man.     Lack  of  fidelity  among  the  early  Teutons  was 
punished  severely.     Tacitus  says,^  "for  a  woman  who 
sells  her  chastity  there  is  no  pardon."     At  the  time 
•the  gnomes  were  written,  inconstancy  had  probably 
become  more  common  or  the  punishment  had  become 
softened.     The   lines   seem   to    indicate   this  double 
.condition.     If  the  penalty  was  as  hard  as  in  the  earlier 
days,  why  the  mention  of  the  small  item  that  a  woman 
is  thought  of  contemptuously,  in  case  of  defamation  ? 
And  she  enjoys  strange  men  when  the  husband  is  far 
away :    a  derogatory   comment,    but   not   indicating 
-that   death   follows  upon   the   misdemeanor.     104- 
111    form    a    group   which   continues   the    idea   ad- 
vVanced  in  the  "  Frisian  woman  "  passage,  in  showing 
the  desii'e  of  the  man  at  sea  to  return  to  his  home  and 
in  declaring  his  need  of  wood  and  water.     112-1 15a 
assert  the  necessity  of  being  fed,  and  it  is  significant 
that  meat  is  synecdoche  for  food  (cf.  modern  bread, 
or  bread  and  meat).     Here  and  in  125  it  may  be  that 
a   figurative  notion  is  altogether   lacking.     Starkad 
says,  '•'  The  food  of  valiant  men  is  raw  .  .  .  the  flesh 
of  rams  and  swine."  ^     1155-117  have  to  do  with  grue- 
some admonitions  about  burial  of  the  dead.     I  see  in 
117  an  echo  of  the  custom  set  forth  by  Tacitus  in 
Germania  XII,  where  he  says,  "  Crimes  ought  to  have 

1  Cf.  lines  2338  ff.  2  Qermania,  XIX. 

«  The  Indo-Europeans  all  make  their  appearance  in  history  as  meat- 
eating  peoples. 


EXETER   GNOMES   AND   COTTON   GNOMES  03 

public  punishment,  shameful  offences  ought  to  be  con- 
cealed." ^     118-13G  are  similar  to  786-81  in  being 
•  distinct  gnomtjs  fitted  together.     118, 1196-120a,  121, 
122,  —  these   have    the   tone    of   old    proverbs,  the 
rhyme  and  compactness  of  form  indicate  the  shaping 
and  polish  of  time.     The  few  adornments  in  the  lines 
are  only  such  as  are  necessary  to  hold  together  the 
verse    scheme.     130-138    form   the   close,  which   is 
obviously    the  work  of   a  Christian  redactor.^     The 
"Woden  passage  is  one  of  the  few  allusions  in  (extant) 
.Anglo-Saxon  poetry  to  the  gods  worshipped  by  the 
.  ancient  Germans.     Line  138  concludes  this  division  in 
true  homiletic  fashion. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Christian  touches  at  the 
"beginning  and  the  end,  this  division  is  almost  entirely 
'  heathen.  The  hand  of  the  monk  is  patent  in  the 
Klines  declaring  God's  power  over  winter  and  over 
Woden.  I  do  not  agree  with  Brandl  in  thinking]:  new 
;  and  old  are  interwoven  throughout.  In  ■  the  first 
place,  there  is  no  other  mark  of  Christian  influence; 
'in  the  second  place,  the  material  is  less  didactic.     All 

-  old  gnomes  are  descriptive  rather  than  imperative;" 

-  the  picture,  not  the  command,  prevails  here. 

^  "  Ignavoa  et  ijnbelles,  et  ccrpore  infames,  coena  ac  palude,  injecta 
;■  iusuper  crate,  mergunt." 

^  II:T;Se7i,  a  new  formation  before  450  a.u.,  took  the  place  of  paganus, 
.  Samaritanus.  On  this  word,  an  etymological  problem,  see  McGillivray, 
.  op.  cit.,  p.  14,  note  2. 

8  t'  —  viel  weniger  befehlend,  al3  beschreibend."  Meyer,  op.  cit., 
p.  44.  Cf.  also  Brooke,  who  translates  11.  72-79,  82-93,  and  12»>-132  aa 
,  the  oldest  of  the  Exeter  Gnomes.  —  English  Literature  from  the  Beginning 
J.  to  the  Norman  Conquest,  New  York,  1808,  p.  317. 


94  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


The  third  and  last  division  Brandl  calls  a  spielmans 
spruch}  Miiller  observes  that  singer  and  soldier  are 
in  the  foreground  ^  and  suggests  that  the  lay  may 
have  been  sung  on  the  battlefield,  by  a  minstrel  to 
the  soldiers.  He  was  a  Christian  singer,  who  sought 
to  palliate  war  and  to  excuse  it,  and  he  does  so  by 
the  passage  on  the  Cain-Abel  feud. 

Analysis  of  the  division  discloses  resemblance  to 
Old  Norse  verse,  both  in  matter  and  manner.^ 

139,  140,  141,  144  form  a  formjr(5islag  strophe ;  * 
145  has  a  parallel  in  Ilqvamql  42,  "  to  his  friend  a 
man  should  be  a  friend";^  146  contains  an  idiom 
probably  a  direct  borrowing  from  the  Icelandic :  fere^ 
feor  hi  tune  is  explained  by  fara  um  tiin,  to  pass  by 
a  house  ;  the  whole  line  is  akin  to  Hovamol  34,  "  the 
digression  is  great  to  (the  home  of)  a  false  friend, 
even  if  he  dwell  on  the  way."  ^  147-152  comment  on 
the  fate  of  the  man,  who,  friendless,  takes  wolves  for 
comrades.  This  subject,  the  friendless  man,  is  con- 
stantly appearing  in  early  literature.  In  a  state  of 
society  where  the  family  or  clan  are  of  much  impor- 
tance, the  homeless  one  is  without  protection  of  law. 

1  Cf.  Rieger :  "  Das  anziehende  der  kleinem  dichtungen  liegt,  abgeseben 
Ton  ihrern  inhalt,  darin  dass  die  uns  die  Alte  volksmiissige  iibung  der  dicht- 
kunst  vor  augen  fiibren,  wonach  der  siinger  in  der  halle  versaaimeUea 
helden  unterm  trinken  mit  einem  vortrag  zu  harfe  unterhalt,  der  teiner 
bestimmung  nach  kurz  und  abgerundet  aein  muss."  —  ZlfLf.  d.  Fhil., 
I,  3-32  ff. 

2  Op.  cit.,  p.  23. 

'  Icelandic  bards  often  visited  England  during  Danish  invasions, 

*  Cf.  Strob),  op.  cit.,  p.  54  ff, 

6  vin  sinom  skal  ma>r  vinr  vesa,  —  S.-G.,  I,  31. 

e  Jbid.,  30. 


EXETER   GNOMES  AND  COTTON  GNOMES  95 

No  heavier  punishment,  then,  could  befall  a  man 
than  to  be  expelled  from  the  circle  of  which  he  might 
be  a  member.^  The  themes  of  the  Wanderer  and 
Seafarer  testify  somewhat  to  this  truth.'^  As  in  pas- 
sages 18&-25a,  786-81,  118-130,  we  found  distinct 
gnomes  tied  together  by  no  bond  save  primitive 
prosody,  so  we  have  in  153-159  a  collection  of  old 
sayings  bound  together  in  a  similar  fashion.  "A 
fillet  shall  be  twisted  "  recalls  that  an  adornment  for 
the  hair  was  of  rolled  gold,  worn  sometimes  even  by 
warriors.  When  Starkad  was  at  the  court  of  Ingeld, 
he  threw  back  at  the  queen  the  ribbon  she  had  tossed 
him  thinking  to  placate  his  wrath :  "  it  is  amiss  that 
the  hair  of  men  that  are  ready  for  battle  should  be 
bound  back  in  wreathed  gold."  ^  Breaking  the 
heathen  tone  of  this  passage,  1566-157  is  apparently 
£.  reminiscence  of  Job  i,  21 :  "  The  Lord  gave  and 
the  Lord  hath  taken  away."  160-161,  a  couplet  on 
trees  and  truth,  is  an  example  of  early  punning.  The 
parallelism  to  Old  Norse  verse  structure  returns  in 
162-164,  a  Ijodahdttr  strophe  which  shows  Christian 
sentiment :  "  God  has  no  use  for  the  faithless  and 
venom-mindea  man."  165  divided  into  two  lines  be- 
comes analogous  to  Ijodahdttr,*  and  continues  with 
biblical  teaching :  "  God  created  the  world,  com- 
manded things  to  be."  166-167  form  a  Ijocfahdttr 
couplet  on  things  fitting  for  men.  168-169,  a  Ijoda- 
hdttr half-strophe,  "  Many  men,  many  minds."  ^     The 

1  Cf.  Gummere,  Germanic  Origins,  p.  171. 

^  Monig  bil>  uncu)>  ir6ow  ge}>ofta.  —  Maxims,  Bib.  2,  280-281. 

8  Saxo,  Elton,  p.  254,  cf.  Holder,  p.  207. 

*  Cf.  Sievers,  PBB.,  XII,  478. 

'  StrobI  combines  IG6-1C9  in  a  five-lino  strophe. 


96  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

thought  is  extended  in  170-172,  the  relief  from  sad- 
ness furnished  by  the  harp.  173-177  return  to  the 
idea  of  friendship,  with  which  compare  above,  145, 
and  Hovamql,  43-47,  particularly,  "  Young  was  I 
once,  I  walked  alone,  and  bewildered  seemed  in  the 
way ;  then  I  found  another  and  rich  I  thought  me  > 
for  man  is  the  joy  of  man."  ^  177  is  a  forcible  sug- 
gestion of  the  respect  formerly  felt  for  the  bear;, 
"  To  the  heathen  Teuton,  a  bear  was  almost  a  man,, 
stronger,  almost  as  cunning."  ^  178-179,  enjoining 
men  to  sleep  with  trappings,  give  no  unusual  com- 
mand ;  for  warriors  often  slept  in  their  armor  or 
with  it  near  at  hand.^  On  180-181,  the  second  half 
of  the  Ijudahdttr  stanza,  see  notes,  p.  145.  182-193' 
throw  additional  light  on  what  Tacitus  says  of  the 
absorbing  game  of  dice.^  The  custom  appears  to 
have  survived  longer  in  Iceland  and  Denmark;  but 
w^herever  the  scene  of  the  play  here  outlined  was  laid, 
dicing  had  degenerated  from  the  sober  game  of  honor 
described  by  Tacitus.  Cheating,  stealing  the  dice, 
and  backbiting  seem  to  be  characteristic  of  these 
players.  It  recalls  the  tale  told  by  Saxo,  also  of  a 
shipboard  game.  Toste  of  Jutland,  the  protagonist, 
warred  with  Hadding  of  Sweden.  On  one  occasion, 
when  he  went  to  Britain,  for  "  sheer  wantonness  he 
got  his  crew  together  to  play  dice,  and  when  a. 
wrangle  arose  from  the  throwing   of  the  tableSj  he 

^  Miss  Bray's  translation  ,  cf.  S.-G.,  I,  32. 
,      ^  York  Powell,  op.  cit.,  p.  Ixxxiv.  J 

»  Cf.  Beoxculf,  1243-1251. 

*  "Aleam  (quod  mirere)  sobrii  inter  servia  exercent,  tanta  lucrandi 
perdenrlive  temeritate,  ut,  cum  omnia  defocerunt,  extrenao  ac  novissimo 
jactu  de  libertate  et  de  corporo  contendant."  —  Germania,  XXIV. 


EXETER   GNOMES  AND  COTTON   GNOMES  97 

t?-ught  them  to  wind  it  up  with  a  fatal  affray.**^ 
186-193  form  a  final  Ijodahdttr  stanza.  194-202  is" 
a  late  interpolation,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Christian's' 
answ  er  to  the  ancient  question, "  Whence  came  evil  ?  " 
203-206  revert  to  old  gnomes  :  ready  shall  be  shield,- 
point  on  staff,  edge  on  sword,  tip  on  spear,  heart  for 
the  brave,  helmet  for  the  bold,  limited  treasure  for 
the  mean  in  heart.^ 

For  the  date  and  authorship  of  the  verses,  such 
opinion  as  has  been  expressed  manifests  some  diver- 
gence. Trautmann,  basmg  his  reasons  on  metrical 
grounds,^  denied  to  Cynewulf  authorship  of  the 
Exeter  Gnomes.* 

Since  Dietrich  (who  attributed  to  him  the  four 
gnomic  groups^'),  Rieger,*^  and  Sarrazin^  (who  agree 
that  he  had  a  hand  in  the  composition  of  group  A), 
placed  Cynewulf  in  the  eighth  century, — Dietrich  iden- 
tifying him  with  the  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  —  they 
implicitly  assigned  these  lines  to  the  same  time.  Strobl 
argued  (particularly  of  C)  for  the  close  of  the  seventh 
or  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  reasoning  on  a 
fancied  reflection  of  the  Oswald-Penda  feud  in  the  Cain- 
Abel  passage.  Stopford  Brooke  expressed  a  belief  that 
the  verses  originated  in  the  early  eighth  century,  and 
that  they  were  probably  heard  by  Ecgbert,iEthelberht, 
and  Alcuin  ;  that  they  were  composed  by  a  Northum- 
brian and  later  taken  up  in  Wessex  after  Alfred's 

1  Elton,  p.  42  ;  cf.  Ilolder/'p.  34. 

2  Hrandl  thinks  these  last  lines  are  natural  as  coming  from  a  spidmari, 
who  praises  tlie  generosity  of  his  Lord.  —  Op.  cit.,  p.  Wil.  Brooke  hears  in 
them  the  true  heroic  ring,  a.s  in  Gn.  C.  —  Earbj  English  Literature,  II,  278. 

8  Cf.  an.  I,  41.  *Cf.  also  Schmitz,  op.  cit.,  p.  216. 

^Anglia,  I,  484  ;  II,  440.  «  Op.  cit.,  p.  .331  ff. 

TEng.  St.,  XXXVIII,  145-196. 


98  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

day.^  Brandl  placed  the  greater  part  of  A  and  B  in 
the  eighth  century,'^  makiDg  his  criterion  the  lack  of 
the  definite  article  before  weak  adjective  and  substan- 
tive.^ C  he  assigned  to  a  time  and  locality  not  far 
from  those  of  the  young  King  Alfred. 

Argument  against  ascription  to  Cynewulf  is  supsr- 
fluous.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  assuming  that 
he  is  the  author,  if  there  were  no  reasons  to  the  con- 
trary. Weaving  a  literary  fabric  from  odds  and  ends 
of  sententious  material  is  hardly  worthy  the  name  of 
authorship/  and  if  it  is,  it  is  not  the  kind  of  composi- 
tion Cynewulf  has  left  in  his  signed  works.  If  its 
crudeness  is  due  to  a  stilted  copy-book  purpose,  as 
Rieger  suggested,  there  is  no  proof  that  Cynewidf 
ever  wrote  copy-books.  The  involution  of  the  runes 
is  done  with  skill  and  subtletv,  the  mortising  of  these 
gnomes  by  a  prentice  hand. 

But  the  suggestion  that  they  were  put  together  in 
the  North  is  of  more  moment  and  requires  some  con- 
sideration. If  there  is  anything  in  language  or 
thought  which  points  to  Anglia  or  Mercia  as  the  home 
of  the  compiler,  it  should  be  given  due  weight.^  If 
in  the  forms  no  definite  peculiarities  occur  that  are  to 
be  labeled  non-West-Saxon,  we  may  conclude  that, 


*  Early  English  Literature,  II,  277  ff. 

»  Op.  cit.,  p.  961 ;  cf.  also  p.  1034. 

'See  U.  79,  96. 

<  When  other  scholars  were  ascribing  the  verses  to  Cynewulf,  Wiilker 
suggested  that  most  of  the  speeches  are  not  by  a  definite  author,  "  sondem 
aus  der  volksweisheit  stammen."  —  Grund.,  p.  230. 

^  It  is  to  be  remembered,  of  course,  that  transmission  through  a  number 
of  years  by  many  scribes  in  sequence  may  have  resulted  in  considerable 
modification  of  forms ;  further,  that  poetry  is  to  be  treated  with  caution 
in  drawing  philological  conclusions. 


EXET2R   GNOMES   ANT>  COTTON"  GNOMES  99 

though  written  elsewhere  at  an  early  date,  they  had 
so  long  been  domiciled  in  West-Saxon  as  to  have  lost 
the  mark  of  original  craftmanship,  or  that  they  were 
written  primarily,  at  whatever  time,  in  this  dialect. 
Now  an  examination  of  the  language  reveals  regular 
West-Saxon  characteristics.  A  few  instances  which 
suggest  Northern  dialect  are  nevertheless  found  in 
Southern  poetry./  and  therefore  their  presence  counts 
for  little  in  determining  provenience.  So  far,  then,  as 
language  is  any  proof  of  provenience,  although  there 
are  forms  which  may  possibly  or  even  probably  be 
other  than  West-Saxon,  yet  they  are  also  found  in 
distinctively  West-Saxon  works,  and  no  one  departure 
from  the  norm  is  great  enough  to  confirm  by  a  hair's 
weight  any  opinion  predisposed  in  favor  of  Northern 
origin.  On  the  contrary,  all  signs  point  to  West-Saxon 
as  the  home  of  the  gnomic  collector. 

And  to  revert  to  this  collector:  who  was  he? 
There  can  be  no  satisfactory  answer  to  the  question, 
but  in  the  absence  of  knowledge  it  is  interesting  to 
surmise.  It  may  not  be  too  wild  a  flight  to  ascribe 
authorship  to  Alfi-ed  himself.  His  Handhoc,  not 
extant,  as  is  well  known,  was  described  by  Asser  and 
cited  by  William  of  Malmesbury.  In  the  centuries 
between  these  authors,  some  parts  if  not  all  of  it  must 
have  been  current  and  recognized.  However  crude 
the  royal  verse,  the  Exeter  Book  compiler  would  prob- 
ably have  transcribed  it.  That  Alfred's  poetic  at- 
tempts were  crude,  is  revealed  by  the  only  examples 
which  have  come  down  to  us  as  the  supposed  work 

^«-  or  a-umlaut  of  a,  eaforan ;  u-umlaut  of  i  to  lo  (eo),  wicfreofoa, 
leofalS,  leomu;  unbroken  a  before  I  +  cousonant,  waldendf  alwdlda. 


100  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

of  his  hand  :  the  verses  in  the  preface  and  at  the  close 
of  the  Pastoral  Care.  The  language  tallies  in  every 
respect  with  that  of  his  own  prose. ^ 

The  Enchiridion^  or  Jlandboc,  may  reasonably  be 
supposed  to  have  contained  just  such  maxims  and 
practical  bits  of  advice  as  these  gnomes  show.  The 
fact  that  they  are  largely  heathen  seems  not  to  accord 
with  the  Christian  spirit  of  his  prose  ;  but  some  points 
may  be  adduced  to  meet  this  objection.  First,  his 
foresisjht  and  wisdom  would  have  seen  that  a  new 
application  of  old  trutlis  would  be  more  welcome  to 
his  people,  semi-heathen  as  they  were,  than  ne^7 
material  altogether.  After  creed  is  dead,  cult  lives 
on  and  its  language  longer  still ;  but  it  may  be  used 
with  underlying  reference  to  a  new  religion.  As  a 
second  suggestion,  the  story  of  St.  Aldhelm  is  not 
without  value.  At  comers,  on  byways,  wherever  he 
might  collect  a  crowd,  he  sang  heathen  songs  and 
spoke  old  sayings.  .  Then  when  the  crowd  was  duly 
interested,  he  branched  into  Christian  teaching. 
Gnomes  may  have  been  preserved  in  writing  for 
similar  reasons.  Moreover,  it  was  Alfred,  it  appears, 
who  handed  down  this  story  of  Aldhelm.  William 
of  Malmesbury^  says:  "Litteris  itaque  ad  plenum 
instructus,  nativce  qucque  linguce  non  negligebat  car- 
mina;  adeo  ut,  teste  lihro  Elfrcdi,  de  quo  superius 
dixi,  nulla  umquam  astate  par  ei  fuerit  quisquam, 
Poesim  Anglicam  posse  facere,  cantum  componere, 
eadem  apposite  vel  canere  vel  dicere.     Denique  com- 

1  The  Metres,  being  translations,  may  be  dismissed  with  tlie  observa^ 
tion  that  in  many  places  (cf .  notes,  passim)  they  show  parallelism  of  ex- 
pression with  the  Gnomic  Verses. 

*  JDe  Gestis  Fontijicum  Anglorum,  V,  1,  ^  5.     The  italics  are  mine. 


EXETER   GN0ME3  AND   COTTON  GNOMES  101 

memorat  Elfredus  caniien  trivicde,  quod  adhuc  vulgo 
cantitatur,  Aldiielmum  fecisse  ;  aditiens  causam  qua 
probet  rationabiliter  tantum  virum  his  quae  videantur 
fmola  institisse:  populuia  eo  tempore  serai-barbarum, 
parum  divinis  sermonibus  intentum,  statira,  cantatis 
missis,  domus  cursitare  solitura ;  ideoque  sanctum 
virum  super  pontem  qui  rura  et  urbem  continuat, 
abeuntibus  se  opposuisse  obicem,  quasi  artem  cantandi 
professum.  Eo  plusquam  semel  facto,  plebis  favorem 
et  coucursum  enieritum.  Hoc  coimnento  sensim  inter 
ludicra  verbis  Scrijyturarum  insertis,  cives  ad  sanita- 
tem  reduxisse;  qui  si  severe  et  excommunicatione 
agendum  putasset,  profecto  profecisset  nihil." 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  King  Alfred  might  have 
profited  by  the  device  of  the  saint  which  he  reported. 
The  '•  trivial  song  "  of  Aldhelm's,  also  lost,  might 
throw  light  on  this  possibility.  The  words  of  scripture 
inserted  carefully  between  the  parts  of  the  heathen 
song  would  seem  to  be  in  close  parallel  with  the 
Christian  sentences  inserted  among  our  gnomes.^ 

Probably  legendary  is  the  report  of  Alfred's  visit  to 
the  camp  of  his  enemies,  in  the  character  of  a  minstrel 
or  jester.  But  the  very  tradition  implies  a  possibility. 
And  he  loved  "  Saxonica  poemata,"  delighting  to 
memorize  them  at  an  early  age.'^ 

But  any  ascription  of  authorship  is  hazardous.  At 
best,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Exeter  Gnomes  were  put 

*  It  is  a  small  point,  but  the  pun  in  1.  121  is  consistent  with  Alfred's 
continual  plays  on  "God"  and  "good."  Cf.  De  Consolatione,  XXXIV, 
XXXV,  etc. 

2  Cf.  Asser's  Life  j/  King  Alfred,  chs.  XXII  and  XXIII.  See, 
especially,  the  edition  by  W.  \l.  Stevenson,  Oxford,  1904,  and  the  copious 
notes  on  this  subjeci,  pp.  220-225. 


102  GNO»nC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

together  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  by  a  "West- 
Saxon  writer.  He  was  acquainted  with  the  Germanic 
customs,  traditions,  and  sayings ;  he  was,  at  the  same 
time,  familiar  with  the  teachings  of  Christianity.  If 
the  elements  drawn  from  Germanic  lore  were  written 
down  earlier,  then  the  Christian  reviser  inserted  lines 
of  later  origin  and  modified  the  framework,  to  some 
extent,  to  fit  the  new  theology. 

COTTOX     GXOMES 

The  gnomology  here  considered  is  found  in  the 
Cotton  Manuscript,  Tiberius  B.  1.^  Before  passing 
into  the  hands  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton,  it  belonged  to 
Bowyer,  Keeper  of  the  Records  in  the  Tower,  and 
was  therefore  designated  by  Joscelin,  Archbishop 
Parker's  Secretary,  as  *'  MS.  Boyer."  Notes  in  the 
volume  made  bv  Robert  Talbot,  Rector  of  Burlincrham, 
Norfolk,  might  indicate  that  he  was  also  a  former 
owner.  Exclusive  of  the  single  gnomic  folio,  the  MS. 
comprises  three  treatises,  and  numbers  165  leaves. 
The  Orosius  occupies  folios  3a  to  1116  inclusive.  At 
the  top  of  112a,  Joscelin  wrote  Cronica  Saxonica 
Ahingdonice  ad  anmnn  1066  ;-  but  he  was  a  bit  pre- 
mature, for  on  this  sheet  begins  the  Menologiuiiif 
which  ends  at  the  bottom  of  1146.  The  gnomes 
fill  not  quite  the  recto  and  verso  of  115.^  Four  lines 
of  1156  are  taken  up  by  the  opening  of  the  Chronicle^ 
which  closes  with  eight  lines  of  1646. 

1  This  quarto  has  often  been  described ;  for  example,  by  Wanley  {op. 
cit.y  II,  21;)),  Earle  (op.  cit.^  xxviii),  Pluramer  {op.  cit..,  II,  xxi  ff.). 
2ri.,  op.  cit.,  I,  223. 
'  See  frontispiece  for  facsimile  of  115a. 


EXETER   GNOMES   AND   COTTON  GNOMES  103 

The  fact  that  the  gnomology  directly  follows  the 
Menologium  caused  early  editors  ^  to  regard  it  as  part 
of  that  poem,  or  intiraately  connected  with  it.  But 
the  further  fact  that  the  first  line  is  written  in  ma- 
juscules is  an  exterior  sign  that  the  scribe  recognized 
new  material,  and  the  fact  that  there  is  no  internal 
connection  is  stronger  evidence  that  there  is  no 
ground  for  regarding  the  sentences  as  an  appendix 
to  that  Calendar.  Moreover,  folio  115a  is  not  in 
corresponding  alignment  with  folio  1146;  for  the 
first  line  of  115a  is  opposite  the  second  Ime  of  1146. 
The  scribe  who  wrote  down  the  gnomes  continued 
for  some  folios''*  with  the  Chronicle,  and  beginning 
with  1156  keeps  the  alignment  constant. 

Except  for  the  first  line,  the  MS.  is  written  in  Hi- 
berno-English minuscules  of  the  eleventh  century .' 
By  reference  to  the  illustration  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  first  line  is  in  Roman  majuscules,  largely 
square  capicals,  but  showing  uncial  forms  in  d,  6, 
and  h. 

The  L  is,  as  usual,  an  exception  to  the  rule  that 
square  capitals  are  of  the  same  height.  The  metrical 
point  is  used,  as  in  other  poems,  to  mark  the  half- 
line,  and  was  employed,  apparently,  with  correct 
knowledge  of  its  functions.''     It  is  omitted  only  three 

1  Hickes,  Fox,  Ebeling. 

"  At  least  for  a  number.  F.  Madan  thinks  there  are  only  two  hands 
in  the  Chronicle  ;  one  to  1040,  another  to  1066  (cf.  Books  in  Manuscript, 
p.  103).     PI.  says  several  hands  are  discernible. 

»  About  A.D.  1045.  — Warner's  Index,  I,  242.  But  Thorpe  (Orosius^ 
p.  vi)  says  not  later  than  the  tenth  century. 

♦  The  MS.  seems  to  indicate  that  these  points  were  inserted  by  the  origi- 
nal scribe,  though  corrections  are  later,  —  cf .  geres,  1.  9.  Bosworth  on 
the  first  page  of  notes  to  his  edition  of  the  Oroftius  observes  :  "These 


104  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

times  and  is  never  misplaced.  The  accent-mark 
occurs  but  seldom,  and  serves  to  show  the  stress,  I 
take  it,  rather  than  a  long  vowel. 

History  of  interest  in  this  group  of  gnomes  began 
in  1703,  when  Hickes  made  a  transcript  for  his  The- 
saurus, accompanying  it  with  a  Latin  translation. 
He  added  a  brief  analysis  of  the  contents,  "  quarum 
elegantia,  splendor  et  proprietas  Latine  exhiberi  non 
possunt,"  ^  Wanley  in  the  second  volume  of  the 
same  work  quoted  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
collection,  and  commented,  "  Carmina  qucedam  pro- 
verbialia  (ut  videtur)  Saxonice."  ^  Nearly  a  hundred 
years  passed  during  which  no  reference  was  made  to 
the  poem.  Then  Sharon  Turner  in  his  History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  printed  the  text  with  a  free  translation. 
He  classed  it  as  an  ode,  though  he  quahfied  his  classi- 
fication by  adding,  "  it  is  a  very  singular  and  curious 
composition."  ^  From  this  time  on,  comparatively 
frequent  mention  was  made  of  the  lines.  In  1826 
J.  J.  Conybeare  published  brief  quotatio.is  from 
Hickes's  text.^  In  1830,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Fox  pub- 
lished the  text  (following  Hickes,  "  except  in  a  few 
instances ")  with  a  fair  English  translation.^  The 
year  1842   marked  the   translation   of   the   gnomes 

alterations  appear  to  have  been  made  several  centuries  after  the  writing 
of  the  Cotton,  and  yet  before  the  knowledge  of  the  An^lo-Saxon  idiom 
had  entirely  passed  away." 

1  Op.  at.,  I,  207.     Cf.  also  I,  221. 

2  Rnd.,  II,  210. 

»  .5iU,  III,  10,  3,  30. 

*  rind.,  pp.  230-232.  His  English  translation  preserves  nothing  of  the 
original  .spirit. 

s  He  fondly  compares  the  poem  to  the  luxuripnt  imagination  of  Pindar. 
It  is  no  small  testimony  to  the  school  of  Cosvley  that  even  in  the  Cotton 
gnomology,  Turner  and  Fox  saw  a  Pindaric  Ode  ! 


EXETER   GN0ME3   AND   COTTON   GNOMES  105 

into  Dutch,  by  Arend.  Within  the  next  decade, 
German  scholars  turned  their  attention  to  Hickes's 
text:  Ebeling '  (1847)  and  Ettmiiller^  (1850)  embodied 
it  in  their  selections  from  Anglo-Saxon  literature. 
In  1865,  Earle  included  the  folio  in  his  work  on  the 
Saxon  Chror.icles,  having  made  his  own  text  from  the 
original  manuscript.'  This  excellent  volume  was  re- 
vised 1892-1899  by  Plummer,  who,  in  his  appendix,* 
gave  a  place  to  the  gnomic  poem. 

There  was  practically  no  critical  work  on  the  text 
nntil  1857,  when  Grein  published  the  Versus  Ghiomici 
in  his  Blhliothek}  From  this  time  on,  a  more  scien- 
tific spirit  operates  here,  as  elsewhere  in  literature. 
In  1872,  Sievers  made  a  collation  of  Grein's  text 
with  the  original  •/  in  1883,  Wiilker,  revising  Grein's 
work,  published  it  under  the  title  Denksprilche,  with 
considerable  annotation.''  In  1887,  StrobP  put  forth 
a  brief,  interesting  article,  in  which  he  discussed 
questions  of  age  and  source ;  and  in  1893,  Hugo 
Miiller  wrote  a  short  dissertation :  Uher  Die  Angel- 
sdchshchen  Versus  Gnomici.^  The  latest  contribution 
is  that  of  Alois  Brandl,  who  in  Paul's  Grundriss^^  has 
discussed  the  structure  of  the  poem.  For  fragmentary 
comments  and  emendations  made  by  other  writers, 
see  notes. ^^ 

1  Op.  cit   p.  119-121.  !"  Op.cit.,  p.  283  ff.       »  Cf.  op.  ciL,  p.  xxxy. 

*  Op.  CiL,  I,  273.  '  II,  340-347.        «  Ztft.f.  d.A.,  nf.  Ill,  406. 

'  J3i6.,  I,  338-341.  »  Ztfl.f.  d.  A.,  X\IX,  bi-Qi. 

»  For  a  review  of  Miiller'a  work  see  Eng.  St.,  XIX,  415  £f.  This  review 
is  a  good  summary  —  and  little  else  —  of  the  dissertation. 

w  I,  960  ff.,  2d  Ed.,  1908. 

"  With  the  exception  of  Longfellow,  no  American  up  to  the  present 
time  has  published  anything  concerning  the  poem.  Longfellow  included 
in  his  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  the  translation  of  Turner,  and  remarked 


106  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

Examination  reveals,  first  of  all,  several  more  or 
less  clearly  defined  divisions.^  The  first  groTip,  l-16a, 
is  composed  of  sentences,  almost  the  only  connection 
between  which  is  the  bond  of  alliteration.'^  I  b3e  no 
reason  for  Brandl's  interpretation  assuming  a  design 
of  the  gnomic  artist  in  placing  first  the  king,  ^'  who, 
according  to  Bede,  v/as  of  godlil^e  origin,"  the  giants, 
then  the  wind,  thunder,  fate,  the  four  seasons,  etc. 
I  say,  I  see  no  reason  for  considering  this  an  order  of 
descent  from  higher  to  lower  concepts,  for  the  argu- 
ment would  work  quite  as  well  if  applied  to  the  gnomes 
in  other  arrangement.  Wyrd  hil^ sioWost  occurs  in  the 
fifth  line,  for  example;  the  young  prince  is  delayed 
until  line  14,  though  the  king  appears  in  the  first 
line.^  Brandl  tliinks  the  whole  collection  approaches 
more  nearly  to  the  "  spell "  than  does  any  other 
poetic  remnant.''  Strobl  seems  nearer  the  mark  in 
seeing  in  lines  1-41  a  set  of  school  exercises,^  yet 

1  would  not  hold  with  hini,  much  less  with  Miiller, 
who   thinks   the   close  packing  of   prose    gnomes  is 

on  the  similarity  between  the  aphorisms  and  those  that  adorn  a  modem 
almanac.  It  may  be  said  here  that  considerable  investigation  on  the  part 
of  the  writer  revealed  no  further  parallelism  between  Calendars  of  Saints 
and  Modern  Almanacs.  And  I  have  already  indicated  that  juxaposition 
of  the  Menology  and  Gnomes  seems  to  be  the  result  of  accident. 

1  Miiller  divides  them  according  to  length  :  I,  1-^9  "  dessen  lange  iiber 

2  langzeilen  uicht  hinausgeht."     II,  6-CG  "  Komplexe,  die   mehr  als  3 

langzeilen  einnehmen.'"  —  Op.  cit.,  p.  7. 

2  Ebert  notes  resemblance  in  this  respect  to  "abcbiichern  und  kinder- 
liedern."  —  AUgemcine  Geschichte,  III,  87  ff. 

*  Brandl  see  Christ  exalted  in  the  midst  of  lines  1-14,  which  deal  with 
myths  "neben  dem  Christentum  "  ;  14—41  "  ziihlt  auf,  was  zum  Helden- 
leben  gehort"  ;  41-49  "  nennt  wesen,  die  ausserhalb  des  gottlichen  und 
des  heldenmassigen  kreisen  stehen  "  ;  59-GG  "  ist  moralisierend."  — 
Op.  ciL,  p.  960. 

«  Cf.  Schroder,  Ztft.  f.  d.  A.,  XXXVII,  241.  6  Op.  cit.,  p.  63. 


EXETER   GNOMES   AND   COTTON   GNOMES  107 

"  schiilwerk."  ^  For  whereas  Strobl  characterizes  1-41 
as  artificial,  it  appears  to  me  that  lines  1-1 5a  con- 
stitute the  most  unadorned  and  unaffectedly  natural 
part  of  the  poem.  This  passage  of  fifteen  and  a  half 
lines,  it  is  true,  is  corrupt,  old  material  being  mixed 
with  new,  but  the  number  of  sayings,  the  varying 
lengths  of  the  lines,  the  lack  of  stilted  balance,  pro- 
claim them  to  be  comparatively  free  gnomes  written 
in  sequence.  The  poet  pays  homage  to  the  sovereign 
in  1.  The  next  two  lines,  16-3a,  obviously  prose  if 
lifted  from  the  context,  reflect  the  old  Germanic 
wonder  at  siglit  of  the  stone  cities  left  by  the  Romans.'' 
Sh~ia  are  distinct  prose  gnomes.  46'  and  5a  are 
distinct,  Christ  and  Fate  being  put  in  opposition 
to  each  other,  the  predominance  of  the  latter  tes- 
tifying to  remote  heathen  origin.  56-9  constitute 
an  early  calendar,  comprising  four  seasons,  and 
therefore  suggesting  later  composition.  (Cf.  Gn. 
Ex.  72  ff<)  10  and  11a  are  also  distinct:  truth 
was  highly  prized  by  our  forefathers,  no  less  was 
treasure.^  116-1 2a  hint  at  the  reverence  paid  to 
the  old  and  to  the  respect  entertained  for  their 
opinions.      13    contains   two   unrelated   gnomes,   on 

1  "  in  metriscbea  gewand  gezwftngte  prosagnomen,"  p.  24.  Listening 
to  such  a  collection  would  have  tired  speaker  as  well  as  hearer,  Miiller 
thinks. 

2  As  late  as  414,  the  islanders  (Britons)  were  unable  to  erect  a  stone 
■wall.  Cf.  Bede,  HE.  I,  xii  :  "  At  insulani  munuu  quern  jussi  fuerant,  non 
tarn  lapldibus  quern  cespitibus  consiruentes,  utpote  nullum  tanti  operis 
artificem  habentes,  ad  nihil  utilem  statuunt."  Tacitus,  Germania,  XVI, 
observes  the  ignorance  of  tile  and  mortar  among  the  Germans ;  for  all 
purposes  they  use  timber  roughly  hewn. 

'  Of  jewels,  or  armlets  and  beakers  of  gold.  The  word  suggests  a  time 
remote:  Tacitus  observed  tiiat  the  Germans  knew  nothing  of  coins,  though 
they  were  learning  their  use  from  the  Romans. 


108  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

woe  and  clouds.  14-15,  because  of  its  regularity 
and  polish,  seems  to  be  a  later  distich,  suggesting 
the  prince  and  his  comitatus. 

Lack  of  unity  characterizes  these  lines,  but  hardly 
artificiality,^  except  in  so  far  as  crudeness  of  poetizing 
results  in  a  decadent  mixture  which  is  neither  prose 
nor  verse.  Quite  otherwise  is  the  analysis  of  166-41, 
where  the  hand  of  the  artificer  is  evident.  It  is  first 
noticeaole  that  the  purpose  of  these  lines  is  to  assign 
objects  and  persons  their  fitting  places  and  duties : 
with  the  helmet  the  sword  sliall  await  battle ;  the  good 
man  shall  work  justice ;  the  bear  shall  dwell  on  the 
heath  ;  God  shall  be  in  heaven,  judge  of  deeds.  It  is 
further  to  be  observed  that  the  passage  is  a  mosaic  of 
literary  art.  Beginning  ecg  sceal  wid  hellme,  166, 
the  author  completes  his  line,  Ellen  sceal  on  eorle, 
16a,  with  regard  to  alliterative  effect;  but  tbe  thought 
he  carries  over  into  line  Ha,  hilde  gebidan.  Likewise 
176,  hafuc  sceal  on  glofc,  is  connected  with  17a,  by 
alliteration,  though  it  introduces  a  new  gnome  which 
is  completed  in  18f.;,  iDilde  gewunian.  It  is  further  to 
be  observed  that  the  6  half-line  contains  the  esssential 
prose  gnome,  the  a  half-line  representing,  as  part  of 
the  pattern,  an  attempt  at  adornment.  By  tearing 
away  these  "  poetic  "  additions,  Miiller  distinguishes 
forty-four  prose  gnomes.  As  he  suggests,  the  reviser  of 
old  material  used  the  6  line,  because  as  prose  his  say- 
ings would  liardly  show  the  alliterations  demanded 
by  the  a  line.     They  could  have  been  changed  so  as 

1  Cf.  Brooke,  who  describes  11.  1-9,  13-20a,  and  50-55a,  as  "oldest 
and  most  interesting"  of  the  Gn.  C.  Eng.  Lit.  from  the  Beginning  to 
the  Norman  Conquest,  p.  316. 


EXETER   GNOMES   AND   COTTON   GNOMES  109 

to  effect  an  alliteration,  but  then  their  character  as 
gnomes  would  have  been  destroyed.^ 

It  is  a  plausible  deduction,  therefore,  one  hardly  to 
be  avoided,  that  the  writer  of  these  lines  was  perform- 
ing an  exercise  in  verse  technic.  From  the  store  of 
old  sentences  chat  ascribe  place  or  duty  to  object  or 
person,  he  selected  such  as  suited  his  purpose  and 
bound  them  together  as  we  find  them.  It  is  most 
likely  that  we  have  here  an  eaily  example  of  what 
later  became  a  popular  employment  with  poets.  A 
Norse  Runic  fuporc  of  the  twelfth  century '^  is  in  its 
composition  more  closely  akin  to  this  passage  than  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Rune  Poem.  Take,  for  instance, 
line  14  and  compare  it  in  thought  and  structure  with 
the  passage  under  observation.  Or  consider  the 
Skdldskaparmol  of  the  Prose  Edda  and  the  section 
of  that  rhetorical  treatise  which  exhibits  an  exercise 
in  verse-making.  Employing  alliteration,  the  skald 
weaves  together  the  names  of  the  giants,  of  kings,  the 
various  designations  of  sun,  moon,  and  earth,  of  cattle, 
of  fishes,  of  rivers,  trees,  weapons,  —  of  things  in  gen- 
eral prominent  in  Old  Norse  cosmology.*^ 

1  Some  in  the  a  line  hiive  not  double  alliteration.  Ten  Brink's  opinioa 
should  also  be  noted  on  this  consistency  in  beginning  a  new  maxim,  or  a 
chain  of  ihein,  with  the  second  or  h  half-line  :  " — deutet  auf  selbstandige 
verarbeitung  des  im  grunde  doch  alten  materials  fiir  die  zwecke  des 
dichters."  —  Op.  cit.,  I,  81.  In  the  a  line  we  meet  with  the  predicate  and 
its  object  or  adverbial  modifier  ;  or,  more  consistently  with  AS.  idiom, 
we  find  a  synonyu  of  the  subject  in  the  preceding  b  line.  Cf.  Miiller, 
op.  cit.,  p.  10. 

2  Cf.  Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale,  Vigfusson-Powell,  Oxford,  1883, 1.  369. 
8  Of  fislies,  —  Laks  ok  ldn;^a  lysa,  trosma, 

birtfngr,  hseingr  bust  ok  hrygna, 
humarr,  hrognkelsi,  hyetSnir,  fl6ki, 
blun,  orriSi  ok  andvari. 

—  Edda  Snorra  Sturlnaonar,  Hafnise,  1848,  I,  678. 


110  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 

In  41,  the  alliterative  scheme  breaks  down,  not  to 
be  resumed  imtil  47a;  then  it  vanishes  finally  in  496. 
41-47  point  to  an  early  origin :  shower  mixed  with 
wind  coming  into  the  world,  the  thief,  the  />yrSy 
the  woman's  getting  a  husband,  the  foaming  of  the 
sea.  50-54  list  contending  forces,  arranging  them  in 
pairs  :  good  with  evil,  youth  with  age,  —  a  matching 
indicative  of  the  naive  interest  which  primitive  man- 
kind exhibited  in  contrasts. 

The  remainder  of  the  poem,  reflective  and  religious, 
is  the  addition  of  a  Christian  scribe.  Such  endings 
are  common  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry :  besides  Exeter 
Gnomes  B  compare  Seafarer,  —  which  concludes  with 
an  admonition  to  prepare  for  eternal  happiness  and 
with  thanks  to  the  Prince  of  Glory,  —  and  Wanderer , 
which  recommends  seeking  mercy  from  the  Heavenly 
Father.' 

That  the  pattern  is  torn  and  corrupt,  that  the 
heathen  foundation  is  patched  with  Christian  em- 
broidery,—  that  there  is  absence  of  integrity  must 
be  plain  from  the  preceding  brief  analysis.  If  we 
look  more  minutely  at  the  material,  we  may  observe 
definite  indications  of  early  origin.  First,  there  are 
tokens  of  the  old  religion.  Wyrd,  enta,  Ayrs,  —  all 
relate  directly  to  the  beliefs  and  practices  of  heathen 
times,  and  in  a  vital  fashion.  ]>yrsy  at  least,  has  a 
local  habitation  ;  for  he  must  dwell  in  the  fen ;  cities 
are  the  work  of  giants,  "who  are  in  this  earth**; 
"  Wyrd  is  strongest."  The  second  indication  of  age 
is  visible  in  the  work  of  the  smith,  who  is  patently 

1  Cf.  also  Waldere,  Phoenix,  Juliana,  Lament  of  the  Fallen  Angels, 
and  elsewhere. 


EXETER   GNOMES   AND  COTl'ON  GNOMES  111 

present  throughout.  Helmet  sioeord,  Isem,  heagum, 
hringe,  scyld,  gim^  —  these  words,  though  used  con- 
ventionally in  late  Anglo-Saxon  times,  by  their  com- 
paratively large  proportion  here  suggest  the  time 
when  ring-giving  was  held  in  repute  ;  when  heah-gifa 
was  a  synonym  for  prince  ;  when  shield,  sword,  helmet 
awaited  battle.' 

The  language,  clearly  West-Saxon,  shows  certain 
characteristics  more  usual  in  Late  West-Saxon,'^  but 
they  all  occur  in  Alfrediau  prose,  a  fact  which  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  they  are  not  necessarily  distinc- 
tive of  the  later  period. 

When  was  the  exercise  written,  and  who  wrote 
it?  There  are  two  possible  choices:  either  we 
have  a  combination  of  a  poem  exceedingly  old  and  a 
few  lines  of  homiletic  verse  comparatively  new ;  or 
we  have  a  single  poem  composed  under  the  conditions 
of  changing  belief.  It  may  be  argued  that  the  pro- 
pinquity of  old  and  new,  as  Wyrd  hydswl  ost  immedi- 
ately ixiiQY pryminas  syndan  Cristes  myccle,  is  equivalent 
to  a  dii'ect  statement  that  heathendom  and  Christianity 
here  side  by  side  contested  a  place  in  literature,  or 
shared  it,  because  of  shifting  notions  about  the  rulers  of 
the  world  and  consequent  religions.  If  this  is  the  case, 
however,  heathendom  still  had  supremacy,  as  the  lines 
(see  analysis)  treat  predominantly  of  ancient  Ger- 
manic ideals,  or  in  any  case  display  a  conspicuous 

^  Brand!  notes  the  difference  between  the  simple  compounds  of  On.  C. 
and  the  much  later  Lekren  des  Vaters  combinations,  which  are  more 
reflective.  —  Op.  cit.,  p.  Oti.?. 

2  A  final,  instead  of  g,  appears  in  beah  (gife),  beorh,  gebeorh,  wearh; 
naini,  instead  of  ncinig ;  svaraohakti  vowe's  in  beaduwe  (earlier  beadvie)^ 
bearowe;  wontld,  woiiilde,  earlier  weoro/d. 


112  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

absence  of  Christian  material,  except  in  the  definite 
places  noted. 

In  favor  of  the  former  alternative  is  Christian 
interpolation  in  distinctly  heathen  poems,  and  the 
fact  that  in  the  Christianizing  of  Britain,  old  symbols 
■vN'ere  generally  converted  to  new  jnirposes.  Heathen 
temples  were  turned  to  the  service  of  Christianity :  ^ 
old  poems  of  didactic  character  might  easily  b2  modi- 
fied into  vessels  for  essence  of  the  true  faith.  It 
may  be  objected  that  in  language  the  poem  would  be 
more  nearly  consistent  if  it  were  composed  ac  one  sit- 
ting ;  and  since  forms  are  quite  uniform,  then  the  first 
alternative  is  favored.  But  the  answer  to  this  point 
might  be  that  a  first  or  a  second  scribe  may  possibly 
have  normalized  the  forms. 

1  have  already  stated  that  I  believe  the  poem  to  be 
of  West-Saxon  or  South-English  origin,  and  though  the 
scribes  just  mentioned  might  very  well  have  changed 
Anglian  or  Northumbrian  forms,  yet  if  they  had  done 
so,  there  would  probably  be  some  trace  of  those  dia~ 
lects ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  old  and  new  parts  arose  in 
the  same  dialect,  it  is  again  obvious  that  little  nor- 
malization would  have  been  needed  by  those  hypo- 
thetical copyists. 

The  mingling  of  diverse  elements,  heathen  and 
Christian,  occurred  late  in  Southern  England.  '^  While 
the  faith  shone  with  a  steady  light  in  distant  Northum- 
bria,  Wessex  was  among  the  dark  places  of  the  earth."  ^ 

^  Cf.  letter  of  Pope  Gregory  to  Mellitus  going  into  Britain,  601. 
"  Quia,  si  fana  eadem  bene  constructa  sunt,  necesse  est  ut  a  cultu  die- 
monum  in  obsequium  veri  Dei  debeant  commutari."  —  Bede,  HE.,  I, 
XXX.     He  adds  that  the  idols  were  to  be  destroyed, 

2  Chronicon  Monasterii  de  Abingdon,  J.  Stevenson,  1858,  II,  v  ff. 


EXETER   GNOMES   AND   COTTON   GNOMES  113 

Bede  states^  that  in  640  the  new  faith  was  prev- 
alent in  Kent,  but  it  seems  to  be  also  true  that 
as  late  as  686  it  had  gained  no  footing  in  the  Isle  of 
"Wight.  The  southern  kingdoms  held  longest  to  the 
old  worship  of  Vv^oden,  Thor,  and  other  Teutonic 
deities.  Abingdon  was  founded  in  675.  After  the 
Council  of  Aries  in  813,  a  steady  effort  was  made  in 
education,  both  of  the  clergy  and  the  laity.  These 
facts  are  significant,  in  connection  with  the  gnomes 
under  discussion ;  the  heathen  heritage  was  yet  fresh 
in  the  memory  of  minds  which  were  being  dominated 
by  the  new  religion.  Some  now  forgotten  monk  with 
a  crude  gift  for  verse-making  ^  roughly  put  together  the 
two  elements,  —  heathen  and  Christian,  the  second 
contribution  being  his  own.  Later,  the  verses  may 
have  been  used  as  a  school  exercise ;  perhaps  for 
copy-books,  perhaps  for  memorization,  possibly  as  a 
model  for  alliterative  compositions.^ 

»  HE.,  Ill,  viii. 

2  In  tlie  days  when  Cynewulf  ascriptions  flourished,  Trautmann  ob- 
served that  for  metrical  reasons,  Cynewulf  could  not  be  the  author. 
Rieger  (op.  cit.)  admitted  th?.t  the  verses  are  crude,  but  thought  they 
might  be  in  the  poet's  earlier  style. 

8  In  searching  for  allied  types,  I  have  been  interested  in  comparing 
•with  these  verses  the  Viaticum  of  Llevoed  Wynebglawr  (Red  Book  of 
Hergest,  xxiv.).  He  may  have  flourished  near  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
century.     Cf.  The  Four  Ancient  Books  of  Wales,  W.  Skene,  1868. 


II 

Table  of  AsBRiiiviATioNS  * 


An.  Andreas. 

Angl.  Anglia. 

Arch.  Archceologia. 

Archiv.  Archiv  fur  das  Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen  und  Litter- 

aturen. 
AS.  Anglo-Saxon. 

BeL  Beiblatt. 

Beo,  Beowulf,  Ed.  Heyne-Socin,  revised  by  L.  L.  SchUcking, 

Paderborn,  1903. 

Bib.  Grein-Wiilker,  Bibliothek  der  angelsachsischen  Poesie. 

BB.  Bonner  Beitrage  zur  Anglistik. 

B.-T.  Bosworth-Toller,  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary, 

B.-T.,8upp.  Ibid.,  Supplement  Part  T,  A-Eorp. 

B.  Bouterwek,  K.,  Ccedmons  des  Angelsachsen  Biblische  Dicht- 

ungen,  Gutersloh,  1854, 
Brandl.  Brandl,   A.,    Geschichte    der    Altenglischen  Literatur,  In 

Paul's  Orundriss  der  gennanischen  Bliilologie,  Vol.  U, 

2d  edition,  lfX)8. 
Brooke.  Brooke,  S,  A.,  English  Literature  from  the  Beginning  to 

the  Norma7i  Conquest,  New  York,  1898. 

Chr.  Christ. 

C.  Conybeare,  J.  J.,   Illustrations  of  Anglo-Saxon   Poefry, 

London,  1826. 
C.-S.  Cook-Sievers,  Grammar  of  Old  English,  3d  edition,  Boston, 

1903. 
Cos.  Cosijn,  P.,  Altwestsdchsische  Grammatik,  Ilaag,  1883. 

DAK.  Mullenhoff,  K.,   Deutsche  Altertumskunde,  Berlin,    1870- 

1900. 

Ea.  Earle,  J.,  Tioo  of  the  Saxon  Chronicles  Parallel,  Oxford, 

1865. 
E.E.T.S.  Early  English  Text  Society. 

Eb.  Ebeling,  F.  W.,  Angelsdchsisches  Lesebuch,  Leipzig,  1847. 

Edd.  Editors. 

1  Citations  of  texts  not  otherwise   registered  are  from  the   Grein- 
WUlker  Bibliothek 

114 


TABLE  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


115 


El.  Elene. 

Eng.  St.  Englische  Studien. 

Ettm.  EttmUller,  L.,   Engla  and  Seaxna  Scopcu  and  BoceraSt 

Quedlinburgil  et  Lipsiae,  1850. 
Ex.  Exodus. 

Fox.  Fox,  S.,  Menologium,  London,  1830. 

Gen.  Genesis. 

Gn.  C.  Cotton  Gnomes. 

Gn,  Ex.  Exeter  Gnomes. 

Gr.  Grein,  C,  Bibliothek  der  Angels&chsischen  Poesie,   G5t- 

tingen,  1857. 
Gr'.  Grein,    Zur    Textkritik  der  Angelsdchsisehen  Dichter,  in 

Germania,  X,  1865. 
Grendon.         Grendon,  F.,    The  Anglo-Saxon  Charms,   In  Journal  of 

American  Folk-lore,  Vol.  XXII,  No.  84,  1909. 
Grund.  Wiilker,  R.  P.,  Grundriss  zur   Geschichte  der  angelsach' 

sischen  Litteratur,  Leipzig,  1886. 
Guth.  Guthlac. 

11.  Hickes,  G.,  Thesaurus,  Oxford,  1705. 

IIE.  Baedac,  Venerabilis,  Historia   Ecdesiastica   Gentis  Ang- 

lornm,  Ed.  Pluinnier,  Oxford,  18.>0. 
Holt.  Holthausen,  F.,  Zur  Textkritik  Altenglischer  Dichtungen, 

in  Eng.  St.,  XXXVII,  U'06-1907. 
Holt'.  Hollliauser,  Zur  AHenglischen  Literatur,  in  Anglia  Bei- 

blatt,  XXI,  1910. 

Icel.  Icelandic. 

.TEG.  Ph.         Journal  of  English  and  Germanic  Philology. 
Jul.  Juliana. 

Kl.  Kluge,  F.,  Angels&chscScJies  Lesebuch,  Halle,  1888. 

Koegel.  Koegel,  R.,  Geschichte  der  deut^chen  Litteratur,  Sttsaabxug^ 

1894-1897. 
Kr.  Krapp,  G.  P.,  Andreas  and  the  Fates  of  the  Apostles,  Boston, 

1900. 


Ma.  March,  F.  A.,  Anglo-Saxon  Reader,  New  York,  1879. 

Men.  Menologium. 

Met.  Metres  of  Boetliius. 

Meyer.  Meyer,  R.  M.,  Altgermanische  Poesie,  Berlin,  1889. 

ME.  Middle  linglis'a. 

Mn.  E.  Modern  English. 


116 


GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


MLN.  Modern  Language  Notes. 

M.  Ph.  ilcdern  Philology. 

Mli.  Miiller,  H.,    Uher  die  Angelsdchsischen  Versus   ffnomici, 

Jena,  1893, 

ITED.  New  English  Dictionary. 

GEE,  Gumuiere,  F.  B.,  Oldest  English  Epic,  New  York,  1909. 

OHG.  Cld  High  German. 

ON.  Old  Norse. 

Oros.  Alfred's  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of  Orosius,   translated  by 

B.  Thorpe  (in  Pauli's  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great,  1900). 
OS.  Old  Saxon. 

PBB.  Paul  and  Braune's  Beitrage  zur  Oeschichte  der  Deutschen 

Sprache  und  Literatur. 
PI.  Plummer,  C,  Tioo  of  the  Saxon  Chronicles  Parallel  (on 

the  basis  of  Earle's  Edition),  Oxford,  1892-1899. 
PMLA  Publications    of    the    Modern    Language    Association   of 

America. 
Pb.  Psalms,  Ed.  Grcin-WUlker  (in  the  Bihliothek  der  Angel' 

siichsischen  Prona),  Hamburg,  1910. 

Rid.  Piddles. 

Rie.  Rieger,   M.,    tjber   Cynewulf  in    Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche 

Philologie,  I,  18(50  (for  On.  Ex.  A). 
Rie.  Rieger,  ^l.,  Angehdchsisches Lesebuch,  1861  (for  On.  Ex.B). 

Sch.  Schipper,  J.,  Zum  Codex  Exoniensis,  in  Germania,  XIX, 

1874. 
Schmitz.  Schmitz,  T.,  Die  Sechstakter  in  der  Altenglischen  Dichtung, 

in  Angl.,  XXXIII,  1910. 
Seaf.  Seafarer. 

Sh.  Shipley,  G.,    The  Genitive   Case  in  Anglo-Saxon  Poetry, 

Baltimore,  1003. 
Siev.  Sievers,   E.,  Phythmik  des  Alliierationsverses,  in  PBB., 

XII,  1887. 
Siev^.  Sievers,  Altgermanische  Metrik,  Halle,  1893. 

Sol.  and  Sat.    Solomon  and  Saturn. 
Spr.  Grein,  Sprachschatz  der  angelsdchsischen  Dichter,  Caasel 

and  Gottingen,  1861. 
Str.  Strobl,  J.,    Zur  Spruchdichtung  bei  den  Angelsachsen,  in 

Zeitschrift  fur  deutsches  Alterthi.m,    XXXI,  n.f.  XIX, 

1887. 
Sw.  Sweet,  H.,  An  Anglo-Saxon  Peader,  1804  ]  ^.^ferei^ces  in 

The  Oldest  English  Texts,  1885     ^j^^^  ^^'^^ 
The  Student's  Dictionary,  1897  J 


TABLE  OF   ABBREVIATIONS 


117 


T.  Turner,  S.,  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons^  London,  1805. 

Ten  Br.  Ten  Brink,  B.,  Oeschichte  der  Englischen  Litteratur,  Berlin, 

1877. 
Th.  Thorpe,  B.,  Codex  Exoniensis,  London,  1842. 

Tapper.  Tapper,  F.,  Jr.,  TTie  Riddles  of  the  Exeter  Book,  New  York, 

1910. 


Wand.  Wanderer. 

\Va.  Wanley,  in  Vol.  II,  Ilickes'  Thesaurus. 

Weinhold.  Weinhold,  K.,  Altnordisches  Leben,  Berlin,  1856. 

Wr.  Wright,  J.,  Old  English  Grammar,  Oxford,  1908. 

Ztft.  f.  d.  A.     Zeitschrift  fur  deutsches  AUerthum. 
Zlft.  f .  d.  Phil.  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  Philologie. 


Ill 

Exeter  Gnomes 

A    Exeter  Maniiscript,  Folios  886-90a  ;  in  this  text,  lines  1-71  Incluaiye. 
B     Folios  90a-91a  ;  lines  72-138. 
C    Folios  91a-926  ;  lines  139-206. 

(886)    Frige  mec  frSdum  wordum  :  ne  Iret  J)Inne  fertJ  onhSlne, 
degol  ]>set  ]>iX  deopost  cunne.     Nelle   ic  )?6  min  dyrne 

gesecgan, 
gif  \>\x  me   ^inne  hygecraeft  hylest  and  )>me  Leortan 

gej'ohtas. 
Gleawe  men  sceolon  gieddum  wrixlan.     God  sceal  mon 

Krest  hergan, 
5     ftegre,  feeder  userne,  for})on  ]>e  he  ils  aet  frymj^e  getSode 
llf  and  lienne  willan :  he  usic  wile  psusi  l6ana  geraonian. 
ileotud  sceal  in  wuldre.     ]\Ion  sceal  on  eorJ>an; 
geong  ealdian.     God  us  ece  bip  : 
ne  wendaS  hine  wyrda,  ne  hine  wiht  drecep 
10    adl  (89a)  ne  yldo  eelmihtigne ; 

ne  gomela  li6  in  gieste,  ac  he  is  g6n  swa  he  wees, 
Jjeoden  ge))yldig ;  he  us  ge)>onc  syletS, 
missenllcu  mod,  monge  reorde. 
Feorhcynna  fela  i'di]>m.e]>  wide 
15     ^glond  monig.     Eardas  rume 
meotud  arierde  for  moncynne, 
oelmihtig  god,  efenfela  bega 

1.   Th.  would  substitute  bihelan  3.  Gr.  overlooks  mS. 

for  onhSlne,  or  deglian,  diglian,  for  12.   Gr.  K>nc,  for  ge)>onc. 

dfgol.  13.   Th.  mon-geraorde. 

^  In  citntioiLs  from  other  editors  some  liberty  has  been  taken  by  way  of 
normalization  ;  for  example,  v  is  changed  to  w.  If  editors  omil  marks 
of  quantity,  none  are  used  here  except  to  prevent  ambiguity. 

118 


EXETER   GNOMES  119 

J>6oda  and  J>6awa,    '^ing  sceal  gehegan 

fr6d  wits  frjdne ;  bi}>  hyra  fer15  gellc ; 
to    hi  &  sace  8emaJ» ;  sibbe  gelaeraS,    - 

|>5,  oer  wonsiSlge  awegen  habbatS. 

RcM  sceal  mid  suyttro;  ryht  mid  wisum  ; 

til  sceal  mid  tilum.     Tti  b5o3  gemaeccan. 

Sceal  wif  and  wer  in  woruld  ceunan 
s5     beam  mid  gebyrdum.     Beam  sceal  on  eor8an 

leafum  lij»an,  leomu  gnornian. 

Fus  sceal  feran,  fSge  sweltan 

and  dogva  gehwam  ymb  geda,l  sacan 

middangeardes.     Meotud  Sna  wat 
30     hwior  s6  cwealra  cyme)),  \>e  heonan  of  cy)))>e  gewTte)>. 

Umbor  yceS,  ))a  itr  adl  nimeS ; 

]>y  weorpeS  on  foldan  swa  lela  fira  cynnes, 

ne  sy  ]>xs  magutimbres  gemet  ofer  eor|)an, 

gif  hi  ne  v/anige  se  ]>ls  woruld  t6ode. 
35     Dol  bi|>  s5  pe  his  dryhten  nat,  to  pees  oft  cymeS  dfiaiJ 
unj^inged. 

Snoti-e  men  sawlum  beorgatJ,  healdatJ  hyra  sOS  mid  rihte. 

Eadig  bis  sS  pe  in  his   gj'le  gefJlhtS;  earm  86  him  his 
frynd  geswicat5 ; 

nefre  sceal  s&  him  his  nest  aspringetS :  nyd[e]  sceal  {rSge 
(896)  gebunden. 

Bllj^e  sceal  bealolgas  heorte.    Blind  sceal  his  eagna)>olian: 
40    oftigen  bip  him  torhtre  gesih)>e ;  ne  magon  hi  ne  tunglu 
bewitian 

swegltorht,  sunnan  ne  monan :  faet  him  bi))  sar  in  his 
mode, 

ange  j^onne   h6   hit  ana  wat,  ne  w6ne3  past  him  faes 
edhwyrft  cyme; 

waldend  him  J>aet  wite  tCode :  s6  him  maeg  wyrpe  syllan, 

18.   Gr''.  gehegan  ;  Edd.  gehegan.  40.   bewitian  :    f   over  the  line. 

26.   Th.   suggests  lifian  ?    leomu  Sch.    "von    anderer   hand."     W. 

growan  V  "  von  andrer  hand  ?  " 

SI.  Th.  aer  adl,  so  Or.  ?er  adl  but  41.   Th.  swegl-torht-sunnan. 

Gr«.  serddl,  so  W.  42.    MS.  onge,  Th.  on  ge  hon,  Gr. 

38.    Edd.      nyd,     except     Holt.  on  ge  J>on  he,  and  notes:  "onge 

J*yd[e],      and      Gr.      nv5  =  no!S  (vgl.  onga  aculeus)  und  >onne?" 

libuma?  Gr^.    onge,  >on  (>onne?)  he  .  .  . 


120 


GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


45 


SO 


55 


6o 


65 


hcele  of  bCofod^mme,  gif  he  wit  heortan  clSne. 

Lef  mon  Iteces    behofatJ.     LSran   sceal    mon  geongne 

monnan, 
trjmman  and  tyhtan,  )>set  liS  teala  ciinne, 
oJ>  j'oet  hine  mon  atemedne  haebbe, 
sylle  hira  wist  and  wSdo,  o]>  Jjset  hine  mon  on  gewitte 

aliede. 
Ne  sceal  hine  mon  cildgeongne  forcwe]jan,  ser  h6  hine 

acyjian  mote  : 
]>j  sceal  on  jieode  ge}>6ou,  paet  h6  wese  pristhycgende. 
Styran  sceal  mon  strougum  mode.      Storm   oft  holm 

gebringet5, 
geofeu  in  grimmum  sielura  ;  onginnatS  grome  fundian 
fealwe  on  feorran  to  londe ;  hwaiper  h6  feeste  stonde : 
weallas  him  wij>re  heaklaS;  him  biS  wind  gemiene. 
Swa  bi)>  sie  smilte, 
)>onne  hy  wind  ne  weceS, 
swa  beo)'  peode  gepwiei-e,  )>onne  hy  gej)ingad  habba3, 
gesittaS   him    on    gesuudum    )>ingum   and   ponne   mid 

gesi)mm  healda)?. 
Cene  men  gecynde  rice.     Cyning  h\]>  anwealdes  georn. 
La5  se  ]>e  londes  monaS,  leof  se  \>e  mare  beodeS. 
yvym  sceal  mid  wlenco,  )>nste  mid  cenum, 
sceolun  bu  recene  bead  we  f  rem  man. 
Eorl  sceal  ou  eos  boge,  eorod  (90a)  sceal  ge*>rume  ridan, 
fasste  fejia  stoudau.     Fiemne  oet  hyre  bordan  gerisetS; 
widgongei  wif  word  gespringeS,  oft  hy  mon  wommum 

bililiS, 
hsele5  hy  hospe  ra«naS,  oft  hyre  hl6or  abreoI^eS. 


Siev.  onge  >on  he.     MS.  distinctly 
>on  =J>onne. 

44.  Th.  -gimmiim  ?  Or.  on  liea- 
fodgimme. 

45.  Th.  lefmon. 

Before  1.  47,  W.  thinks  there  is 
a  loss,  though,  as  he  admits,  the 
MS.  .''hows  no  gap. 

48.  Th.  queries  alnote  ?  foralsede. 

49.  MS.  cildgeongne,  Edd.  cild- 
geongne.   See  note. 


50.    Or.  queries  >v  =  })iv/,  >eow  ? 

52.  Or.  queries  fandian  ? 

53.  Th.  onfaran.  Th.  queries 
stondeS  ?     Gr.  queries  hit  ? 

03.   MS.  worod,  Edd.  eorod. 

05.  Gr.  word,  weord  corruptio, 
daninuiu  ?  Th.  queries  ge- 
sprengeS?  Ettm.  belih-S ;  prob- 
ably a  misprint,  since  he  fol- 
lows Th. 

m.  Th.  abreoteS. 


EXETER   GNOMES 


121 


70 


Sceomiande  man  sceal  in  sceade  hweorfan,  sclr  in  leohte 

gerlsetS. 
Hond  sceal  heofod  inwyrcan,  hord  in  streonum  bidan ; 
gifstol  gegierwed  stondan,  hwonne  hine  guman  gedselen. 
Gifre  bip  se  \>2.m  golde  orxfehS,  guma  faes  on  hgabsetle 

geneah. 
Lean  sceal,  gif  w6  leogan  nellatS,  J)am  \>e  Ha  \>5s  lisse 

geteode. 


75 


80 


85 


B 

Forst  sceal  freosan,  fyr  wndu  meltan, 
eoi'f  e  growan,  is  brycgian, 
waiter  helm  wegan,  wundrum  iQcan 
eorpau  cij^as  :  fl.n  sceal  inbindan 
forstes  fetre,  fela-meahtig  god; 
winter  sceal  geweorpan,  ^>eder  eft  cuman, 
sumor  swegle  hit.     Sund  unstille. 
Deep  d^ada  wseg  uyrne  bi3  lengest. 
Holen  sceal  in  seled.     Yrfe  ged^eled 
dgades  monnes.     Dom  bip  selast. 
Cyning  sceal  mid  cerpe  cw6ne  gebicgan, 
bunum  and  beagum  :  bu  sceolon  eerest 
geofum  god  wesan.     GuS  sceal  in  eorle, 
wig  geweaxan,  and  wif  ge]>eon 
Igof  mid  hyre  leodum,  leohtmod  wesan, 
rune  healdan,  rumheort  been 


68.  Ettm.  heafod,  Gr.  heofod 
plausus  ?  W.  "  ich  fasse  hccfod 
als  dialekt,"  Rio.  heafod  inwriban. 
Th.  queries  gesireonum  ?  Rie. 
screonum. 

69.  Instead  of  hwonne,  Gr.  and 
Rie.  read  gif. 

70.  Gr.  gIfre  =  vorax,  Rie. 
gifro  =  gratus. 

For  706  Rie.  gifeS  man  J'sss  on 
heahsetle  geneahhe. 

73.  Th.  queries  brecan  ? 

74.  Edd.  wajterhelm,  Th.  waeter- 
helm,  but  queries  waiter-holm  ? 


75.  C.    anbindan,    Th.    queries 
unbindan  ? 

76.  Ettm.  fetni,  apparently  after 
Th.'s  query  fetru  ?    H.  meagtig. 

78.  Th.  swegle  ;  but  offers  awe- 
gel-,  or  swegl-. 

79.  C.    dyme,     misprint ;     Th. 
queries  weg?    Ilolt.  ofen. 

80.  Th.  in  ajletS. 

81.  C.  se  last. 
Ettm.  gebycgan. 
C. scealon. 

Gr*.  wTgge  (=  wlgS)  weaxaa. 
Ettm.  leof,  so  later  Edd. 


82. 
83. 
85. 
8«. 


122 


GNOMIC  POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 


90 
(906) 


95 


100 


105 


mearmn  and  maj)mum  ;  meodorSdenne, 

for  gesitSmaegen,  symle  a^hwSr, 

eodor  aef'eliuga  gerest  gegretan, 

forman  fulle  to  frSan  bond 

ricene  gerScan,  and  him  rSd  witan 

"boldagendum  bSm  setsomne. 

Scip  sceal  genaegled,  scyld  gebunden, 

Igoht  linden  bord.     L6of  "wilcuma 

Frysan  wife,  Jjonne  flota  stondej) : 

bis  his  ceol  cumeu  and  hyre  ceorl  to  hSm, 

5gen  ietgeofa,  and  hSo  bine  in  lat$a}», 

wassceS  his  -warig  hrajgl  and  him  syle)j  wsede  nlwe: 

]]]>  him  on  londe,  pees  his  lufu  biedetJ. 

Wif  sceal  wij)  wer  wiere  gehealdan  :  oft  hi  mon  wommum 

behli(5 ; 
fela  bit5  faesthydigra,  fela  biS  fyrwetgeonra, 
freo(5  hy  fremde  monnan,  ponne  se  oj^er  feor  gewlte)>. 
Lida  bis  longe  on  s\]>e  :  a  mon^sceal  sepgah  leofes  wCnan, 
gebldan  ]>ses  he  gebSdan  ne   mseg;    hwonne   him   eft 

gebyre  weorSe, 
ham  cymeS,  gif  he  hal  leofaS,  nef ne  him  holm  gestyretJ ; 
mere  hafaS  mundum.     MaegtS  egsan  wyn. 
Ceap  gadig  mon,  cyning  wic  J)onne 
leodon  cypef>,  J)onne  llpan  cymeS : 


89.  Th.  queries  -maegum  ?  Ettm. 
Borge  sitSmagen  simle,  Rie.  for  ge- 
si^msegon.  MS.  sorge  si^  masgen, 
not  necessarily  "gesiS,"  as  W. 
states.     Gr.  simle. 

90.  H.,  Th.  ae>>elinge. 

91.  H.  for  man,  Th.  forman, 
tut  queries  feorman  or  feorme  ? 
Ettm  handa,  Siev.  (FBB.X,  519) 
honda, 

94.    Ettm.  scild. 

96.  MS.  frysan.  H.  )>od,  MS. 
J>on  =  >onne. 

97.  H.  misprints  him  for  ham. 
93.    MS.    inla-SaJ.,    so    H.,    Th., 

Ettm. 

100.   Th.  queries  bidaU  ? 


101.  Ettm.  brackets  wib  wer. 
Rie.  omits  101b,  Th.  quories  ben's? 

102.  Th.  fyrwet-geonira  ;  Ettm. 
fyrwitgeonra,  Gr.,  Rie.  fyrwetr- 
geornra,  "W.  emends  fyrwetgeoma. 

103.  II.  i>on,  MS.  )>on. 

104.  Ettm.  man. 

107.  MS.  egsan,  so  H.,  Th.,  Ettm. 
Th.  queries  egna  (eagena)?  Gr. 
Mere  hafaiS  mundum  ma;g1S,  egsan 
wyn,  but  notes :  wyn  =  win,  gewin  ? 
Oder  egsa,  ?egsa  =  Alts.  €gso  pos- 
sessor ?  Gr^.  egsan,  Rie.  eagna, 
W.,  Holt.  egna. 

108.  Holt,  ceape,  H.  J>on. 

109.  Ettm.  leodum  cepe)>,  .  .  . 
lida. 


EXETER   GNOMES  123 

lie    wuda  and  waetres  nyttaS,  I)onne  him  hip  wTc  alyfed ; 

mete   bygej>   gif  h6   mSxan  J)earf,  gr  J)on  h6  t5  me}>e 
weor)>e. 

Seoc  se  bi{),  J>e  to  seldan  ieteS;  p&ah.  hine  mon  on  sun- 
nan  laede, 

ne  maeg  h6  be  f>y  wedre  wesan,  p&ah  hit  sy  wearm  on 
sumera; 

ofercumec  bij)  he,  Sr  he  acwele,  gif  he  nSt  hwa  hine 
cwicue  fede. 
115     Msegen  mou  sceal  mid  mete  fedan,  (91a)  morpor  nnder 
eor))an  befeolan, 

hinder  under  hrusan,  pe  hit  forhelan  I)encet5 ; 

ne  bif)  ))aet  gedefe  deaj),  J)onne  hit  gedyrned  weor|)e15. 

Hean  sceal  gehnigan,  adl  gesigan, 

ryht  rogian.     Raid  bif)  nyttost, 
lao    yfel  unnyttost,  pset  unked  nimetS. 

God  biS  genge,  and  wi]>  god  lenge. 

Hyge  sceal  gehealden,  hond  gewealden; 

SCO  sceal  in  eagan,  snyttro  in  breostum, 

pijdv  bis  J)a3s  monnes  raodgel'oncas. 
123     MuJ>a  gehwylc  mete  }>earf,  mSl  sceolon  tidum  gongan. 

Gold  ge- ise})  on  guman  sweorde, 

sellic  sigesceorp,  sine  on  cwSne ; 

god  scop  gumum,  garni})  werum, 

"Wig  t6wi{)re  wicfreopa  healdan. 
130     Scyld  sceal  cempan,  sceaft  reafere, 

sceal  bryde  beag,  bee  leornere, 

husl  halgum  men,  hOef'num.  synne. 

Woden  worhte  veos,  wuldor  alwalda, 

rume  roderas ;  )?tet  is  rice  god, 

110.  H.  >on,  Ms,  alyfe'5,   Edd,  125.  H. 'Searfe.     Ettm.  begins  » 
alyfed.  new  line  with  gongan. 

111.  W.  notes:    MS.  weo>e  ;  it  128.   Th.  gar  ni|>-wenim,  Ettm. 
L?,  however,  clearly  weor^e.  gar  ni^werum,  Rie.  gar  nil>werum. 

112.  II.  ietaS,  Th.  notes  eteiS.  129.   Ettm,     wio     freoCu,     Gr. 
114.   H.  a  cwele.                                 wicfreotSu. 

118.    H.    gehingan.      Th.   adlige  132.    H.  hus. 

sigan,  Gr.  Die  alliteration  fordert  133.   Rie.  alwaldan,  B.  woldora 

hadi ;    etwa  ha^u,  hea^u  i*    Holt,  alwalda. 
hadi  =  heald. 


124  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

135     sylf  sot5cyning,  sSwla  nergend, 

se  us  eal  forgaaf,  J^aet  w6  on  lifga{», 
and  eft  set  J^ara  ende  eallum  wealdetS 
monna  cynne ;  |)set  is  meotud  sylf  a. 


Ried  sceal  mon  secgan,  rune  writan, 
140    leo})  gesingan,  lofes  gearnian, 

dom  areccan,  dseges  onettan. 

Til  mon  tiles  and  tomes  raeares, 

cu}>e3  and  gecostes  and  calcrondes : 

nienig  fira  to  fela  gestryuetS. 
145     Wei  mon  sceal  wine  healdan  on  wega  gehwylcum: 

oft  mon  (91&)  ferecS  feor  bl  tune,  J^ier  him  wit  frSond 
unwiotodne. 

"Wineleas,  wonsSlig  mon  genimeS  him  wulfas  to  geffiran; 

felafuicne  d6or  ful  oft  hine  s6  gefera  slltet5 ; 

giyre  sceal  for  greggura;  graif  dSadum  men. 
150    Hungre  heofeS ;  nales  \>vet  heafe  bewindetS, 

ne  huru  wsel  wepeS  wulf  se  gnega, 

mor|?orcwealm  msecga,  ac  hit  a  mare  wille. 

"NVru&d  sceal  wunden ;  wracu  heardum  men. 

Boga  sceal  straile ;  sceal  bam  gellc 
155     mon  to  gemaiccan.     Ma)){)um  of)res  weortS, 

gold  mon  sceal  gifan  ;  mseg  god  syllan 

eadgum  iehte  and  eft  niman. 

Sele  sceal  stcndan,  sylf  ealdian. 

Licgeude  beam,  liesest  groweS. 
160    Treo  sceolon  briedan  and  treow  weaxan, 

slo  geond  bilwitra  breost  ariseS. 

136.   Rie.  K-er,  for  \>xt.  147.   Ettm.,  Siev.  wulf. 

138,  H.  monne.     Ettm.  silfa.  148.    Ettm.  frecne. 

140.   MS.   leofes,  Edd.  lofes,  H.  152.    Ettm.  mecga. 

gearman,  Or.  gearnian  =geearnian  153.  Th.  "  better  wtsb'S,"  so  Ettm. 

Oder  geornian?  158.   Ettm.  silfer  ealdjan  ?    i.e. 

145.    Ettm.  wel  sceal  mon.  argentum  senescere. 

14G.    W.  errs  in  placing  916  be-  ICO.    Ettm.,  W.  Treo  sceal  on 

tween  tune  and  i>£r.  bnedan.     Tli.  queries  treowu  ? 


KX'^TER   GNOMES  125 

WSrleas  mon  and  wonhydig, 

ietrenmod  and  ungetrSow : 

\>sos  ne  gyraeS  god. 
J65     Fela  jc^op  ineotud  ^aes  ]>e  fyrn  geweartJ,  h6t  8i}>)>a]i  swi 
fort5  wesan. 

Wuira  gehwylcum  wisllcu  word  gerlsaS, 

gleoruen  gied  and  guman  snyttro. 

Swa  monig  beo))  meu  ofer  eorJ)an,  swa  b€o})  m6dge))Oiica3 : 

ielc  him  hafaS  svmdor  sefan  longatS; 
170     ponne  \>y  liDs  ]>e  him  con  ISoJ'a  worn 

oppe  mid  hondum  con  hearpan  gretan, 

hafa})  him  his  gliwes  giefe,  \>e  him  god  sealde. 
'    Earm  bil>  se  pe  sceal  ana  lifgan, 

wineleas  wunian  hafaf)  him  wyrd  getgod: 
»75     bet  re   him   wSre   j'Sit   he   bioj^or   ahte,  bSgen   hi  inea 
monnes, 

eorle  ei'foran  (92a)  wuJran,  gif  hi  sceoldan  eofor  onginnan 

ol'pe  bggen  beran  :  bip  ]>xt  sllpherde  deor. 

X  scyle  pa  rincas  geritdan  liedan 

and  him  a^tsomne  swefan  : 
180     naifre  hy  mon  to  mon  to  mSdle, 

ser  hy  deat5  todSle. 

Hy  twegen  sceolrn  tsefle  ymbsittan,  penden  him  hjra 
torn  toglide, 

foi'gietan  para  gfiocran  gesceafte,  habban  him  gomen  on 
borde  ; 

162.  Holt. 2  mon[na].  eorlice  ?      Ettm.    writea :     eorlea 

163.  Ilolt.'^  ungetreow[e].  waeren  eaforan,   and   queries    on- 

164.  Gr.  gymed,  Gr.'^  gymelS.  winnan  ?    W.  eorles.    Holt,  eorlas. 

165.  Holt.     Fela    meotud    [ge]  Ettm.,  Gr.  sceoldon. 

sceop.  177.  Th.  notes -hearde.  So  Ettm. 

166.  Th.,Ettm.,  Gr.  wera.    Sch.  178.   Ettm.,     Gr.     scylen.      Gr. 
gehwylcu,  W,  "  Ha.  hatgehwylcu."  omits    ba.        Th.     queries     ger*d 
Wrong,  MS.  has  gehwylcu,    Ettm.  radan?  Ettm.  gersed  onlaedan. 
wislicu  word  gerisaS  wera  gehwyl-  170.   Ettm.  omits  hira. 

cum,  and   notes,  multa  desunt.  180.   Th.  ma;31e.  Holt,  tomaelde. 

167.  Holt,  gied  [ding].  182.   Str.      A    sceolon    twegen. 

168.  Ettm.  monige.  Ettm.  hire. 

171.    Ettm.  handura.  183.   Th.     notes     )>sere.     Ettm., 

176.    W.  errs  in  placing  92a  at      Siev*.  gesceafta,  so  Gr.,  who  inserts 
beginning    of    line.      Th.    queries      him  before  >ara. 


126  GNOMIC  POETRY   IN  ANGLO-SAXON 

Idle  hond  semetian  genSali 
185     tiefles  monnes,  })Oiine  teoselum  weorpetS 

seldan  in  sldum  c5ole,  nefne  he  under  segle  yme. 

wgrig  sceal  s5  wif>  wrnde  rowe)':  ful  oft  mon  wearnum  tiLtJ 

eargne,  ]>!et  hS  elne  forlSose,  drugaS  his  5x  on  borde. 

Lot  sceal  mid  lyswe,  list  mid  gedSfum : 
190     ^y  weor^jeS  s5  stfin  forstolen: 

oft  hy  wordum  toweorpatS, 

ser  hy  bacum  tobreden. 

Geara  is  hwSr  aried. 

Wear(5  fiehlio  fyra  cynne,  si}»|)an  fur})um  swealg 
195     eorSe  Xbeles  blode :  nses  ]>set  andaege  nltJ, 

of  l^am  wrohtdropan  wide  gesprungon, 

micel  man  seldum,  monegura  feodum 

bealoblonden  mp.     Slog  his  bro  [Sor]  swsesne 

Cain,  }>one  cwealm  nerede ;  cu}>  waes  wide  si}»})an, 
«oo     )7ffit  ece  niS  aeldum  scod,  swa  afjolwarum  ; 

drugon  waJpna  gewin  wide  geond  eor))an, 

ahogodan  and  ahyrdon  heoro  slif^endne. 

Gearo  sceal  guSbord,  gar  on  sceafte, 

ecg  on  sweorde  and  ord  spere, 
205     hyge  heardum  men.     Helm  sceal  cSnum 

And  a  (926)  t>aes  heanan  hyge  hord  unginnost. 

184.  MS.  Idle  hond  ajraet  lange  198.   In   the  MS.  bro  comes  at 

neah,    Ettm.    emtaS    lange    neah  the  end  of  a  line  ;  Th,  bro-swaesne, 

tjeflmonnes.     Or.  longe  and  omits  Or.  brotSor,  so  W. 

neah  ;  Or.-  longe  neah.     Holt,  idle  199.   Th.    queries    nydde  ?     Or. 

hond   is   lange    5met[ig][ge]neah  queries  serede  ? 

[he].  200.    Th.  queries  atol  werum  ? 

187.   Ettm.,  Gr.,  W.   scealc  in-  202.   Th.  queries  slitendne  ? 

Btead  of  sceal  se.    The  MS.  is  clear.  200.   W.  errs  in  placing  926  at 

193.   Str.  arod.  beginning  of  line. 

197.    MS.  mon,  Th.  suggests  man, 
so  Gr. 

Cotton   Gnomes 

Cotton  Manuscript,  Tiberius,  B.  1. 

115a     Cyning  sceal  rice  healdan.    Ceastra  b6o3  feorran  gesjne, 
orSanc  enta  geweorc,  J>a  ]>e  on  }>ysse  eorSan  syndon, 

1.   Edd.  except  PI.  113a.  2.    Eb.cyndon,Ettm.,Kl.  sindon. 


COTTON   GNOMES  127 

\raBtlIo  weallstana  geweorc.    Wind  by?  on  lyfte  awiftust, 

})unar  bytS  }>ragum  hladast.      prymmas  sjmdan  Cristea 
myccle. 
5     Wyrd  by?  s-wItSost.     Winter  byt5  cealdost; 

lencten  hrlmigost,  hS  byt5  lengest  ceald ; 

sumor  sunwlitegost,  swegel  by?  hatost, 

hserfest  hrfSSadegost;  haeleSum  bringe? 

geres  wsestmas  fa  ]>e  him  god  sende?. 
10     So?  bi?  switolost,  sine  by?  d^orost, 

gold  gumena  gehwam,  and  gomol  snoterost, 

fyrngearum  frod,  sG  \>e  ier  feala  geblde?. 

Wea  bi?  wuudrum  clibbor.     Wolcnu  scrl?a?. 

Geongne  sepeling  sceolan  gode  gesi?as 
^5     byldau  to  beaduwe  and  to  beahgife. 

Ellen  sceal  on  eorle.     Ecg  seeal  wi?  hellme 

hilde  gebidaa,     Hafuc  sceal  on  glofe 

wilde  gewunian  ;  wulf  sceal  on  bearowe, 

earm  anhaga ;  eofor  sceal  on  holte 
ao    t6?moegenes  trum.     Til  sceal  on  e?le 

domes  wyrcean.     Daro?  sceal  on  handa, 

gar  golde  fall,     Gim  soeal  on  hringe 

standan  steap  and  gSap.     Stream  sceal  on  y?um 

4.   Gr.,    Sw.    hiinor.      Here,   as  rectly,    "  ein    runder    fleck,    keln 

elsewhere,     however,    Sw.    shows  o." 

also    MS.     form.      Ettm.    sindon,  10.   MS.  swicolost,  Sw.  suggeats 

mycle.  swutolost. 

7.   Ettm.  sun wlitigost.  Gr.swegl.  11,   F,ttm,  gamol  snotrost. 

9.   F.,  Eb.  follow  II.  in  printing  12.    II.,    C.,   Eb.  fyru    gearum, 

geref;  Ettm.  corrects,  geres  ;  in  H.  misprint;  cf,  note  on  geres.    F,  ob- 

as  W.  comments,  "  doch  nur  druck-  serves  this  error,  commenting  on 

fehler,   er    libers,    anr.i    fructus."  Lye's  inclusion  of  fyru.     Gr,  fela. 
Siev.,  W.,  Kl.,  PI.  geares.      Siev,  14.    Edd,    before    Ea.,    geonge. 

and  PI.  note  that  the  a  written  over  Ettm.  aSelingas  sceolon. 
the   line   is   by  a   later  hand,  W.  15,    Eb,  beab  gife,  misprint. 

"  lis.  geres  mit  Ubergeschriebenem  16.   II.,  F.,  Eb,  seel  wi^  helme. 

a,  also  —  geares."     If  the  reddish,  Ettm.,  Gr.,  W,,  Sw,  helme. 
circular  character  was  intended  for  19.    MS.,  Ea.,  PI.  earn  an  haga. 

a,   it  was  inserted  by  a  modern  "Ettm,   ftndert  in  earm   anhaga, 

hand.     Ea.,   PI.   westmas.      Siev.,  als  beiwort  zu  wulf,"  W.,  who  fol- 

Pl.  understand  him  corrected  by  lows,  as  Gr,,  Sw.  had  done.     H., 

later  hand,   hiom.      But  W.  cor-  F.,  Eb,  Of  or. 


128 


GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


30 


35 


mecgan  mereflode.     Maest  sceal  on  ceole 
35     segelgjrd  seomian.     Sweord  sceal  on  bearme 

drihtlic  Isern.     Draca  sceal  on  hlSwe 

frod,  frcfitwum  wlanc.     Fisc  sceal  on  wsetere 

cynren  cennan.     Cyning  sceal  on  healle 

bSagas  dielan.     Bera  sceal  on  hSSe 

eald  and  egesfull.     Ea  of  dune  sceal 

flodgnl'g  feran.     Fyrd  sceal  aetsomne, 

tlrfsestra  getrum.     Tr^ow  sceal  on  eorle, 

wisdom  on  were.     Wudu  sceal  on  foldan 

bkedum  blowan.     Beorh  sceal  on  eor))an 

grene  standan.     God  sceal  on  heofenum 

diieda  dgraend.     Duru  sceal  on  healle, 

rum  recedes  muS.     Band  sceal  on  scylde, 

fasst  iSngra  gebeorh.     (1156)  Fugel  uppe  sceal 

lacan  on  lyfte.     Leax  sceal  on  wiele 
40    mid  sceote  scrlSan.     Scur  sceal  on  heofenu.n 

winde  geblanden  in  j^as  woruld  cuman. 

^6of  sceal  gangan  pystrum  wederum.      ^yrn  sceal  on 
fenne  gewunian 

ana  innan  lande.     Ides  sceal  dyrne  cioefte, 

fiemne  hire  freond   gesecean,   gif   heo   nelle   on   folce 
ge}5gon, 
45     )>8et  hi  man  beagura  gebicge.     Brim  sceal  sealte  weallan, 

lyfthelm  and  laguflod  ymb  ealra  landa  gehwylc 

flowan  tirgenstreamas.     Feoh  sceal  on  eorSan 


24.  H.,  F.,  Eb.,  Or.,  Ea.,  PI.  fol- 
low MS.  Ettra.  queries  mengan, 
Sw.  mencgan,  so  Kl. 

28.  H.,  F.,  Eb.  cynran  cennen, 
misprint. 

31,  H.,  F.,  Eb.,  Ettm.,  Or.,  Sw. 
fold  gneg.  Or.-  queries  fiodgrieg? 
Ea.,  PL  flod  gneg,  Siev.,  W. 
flodgra?g.  H.,  F.,  Eb.,  Ettm.  tet 
Bomne. 

32.  Ettm.,  tyr  fastra.  Edd. 
treow,  but  MS.  shows  a  dot  imdero. 

34.  Gr.  beorg, 

35.  Ettm.  heofonum. 

38.   Edd.  except  PI.  1136. 


39.  Ettm.  wele. 

40.  I  in  scritJan  inserted  by  later 
hand.     Sw.  of  heofenum. 

42.  Eb.  Jjyrstrum.  Ettm.  iasarta 
faste  before  gewunian,  noting, 
"deest  apud  H."  Ea.  gewunian, 
and  notes,  "gewunian  weakens  the 
sense  and  destroys  the  allitera- 
tion." 

44.  H.,  F„  Eb.,  Gr.  femne.  H., 
F.,  Eb.,  Gr.  gesecean,  Gr.  queries 
gefeccan,  Gr.^  gesi^ccan. 

45.  H.,  F.,  Eb.,  Ettm.,  gebycge. 
H.,  F.,  Eb.,  Gr.  sealt. 

46.  H.,  F.,  Eb.  land. 


COTTON   GNOMES  129 

tydran  and  tyman.    Tungol  sceal  on  heofenum 

beorhte  sclnan,  swa  him  bebfiad  meotud. 
50     God  sceal  wi5  jfele,  geogoS  sceal  wi5  yldo, 

llf  sceal  wi3  dCaJ^e,  Ifioht  sceal  wi3  ))ystrum, 

fyrd  wis  fyrde,  ft?ond  wi5  o5rum, 

la3  wis  la})e  ymb  land  sacan, 

synne  sUelan.     X  sceal  snotor  hycgean 
55     ymb  }>ysse  worulde  gewinn  •  wearh  hangian, 

faegere  ongildan,  Y?et  h6  ier  facen  dyde 

manna  cynne.     Meotod  aua  -.vat 

hwyder  seo  sawul  sceal  sySSan  hweorfan 

and  ea!!e  \>ii  gastas,  \>e  for  gode  hweorfaS 
60    aifter  dCaSdaege ;  domes  bidaS 

on  feeder  fteSme.     Is  s6o  forSgesceaft 

digol  and  dyrne  ;  diihteii  ana  wat, 

nergende  fieder.     Nctni  eft  eymeS 

hider  under  hrofas,  \>q  ]>mt  li6r  forsotS 
65     mannum  secg>^,  Invylc  sy  meotodes  gesceaft, 

sigefolca  gesetu,  J»8er  he  sylfa  wunat5. 

60.  H.,  F.,  Eb.,  Gr.  ylde,  Ettm,  60.    Sw.    offers  bidan,  as  bett«r 
llde.                                                          than  bida'5. 

61.  Eb.  byrstrum.  63.   Eb.     misprints     mergende. 
64.   Ea.  ycgean.                                   Etcm.  njenig. 

66.   Gr.    queries    feore  ?    fsege  ?  64.    Ea.  enda  the  line  with  hSr. 

Ettm.  dide.  66.   H.,  F.,  Eb.,  Gr.  geseta. 

57.    Etlm.  meotud. 


IV 

NOTES  ON  GNOMIC  VERSES' 
Exeter  Gnomes 


1.   Frige  mec=interroga  me.     Cf.  Ps.  138,  23. 

lb-2a.  Do  not  let  thy  thought  [be]  hidden,  the  mystery  that  thou  most 
thoroughly  mayst  know. — Understand  wesan  after  Z«^  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  613, 
Spr.,  I,  281,  {/ere!)  occulhim  esse.  Gr.  "  ich  vermute  ein  adj.  onhsel, 
absconditus."    Th.  sees  in  onhxlne  the  meaning  'unsound.' 

4a.  W.  agrees  with  Th.  in  conceiving  the  a-line  to  be  the  end  of  the 
introduction,  the  ft-line  the  beginning  of  the  gnomes.  I  hold  with  Gr.  in 
beginning  the  gnomes  with  gleaioe.  gieddum :  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  474  (gpied), 
"  As  Old  English  or  Saxon  proverbs,  riddles,  and  particular  speeches  were 
generally  metrical  and  their  historians  were  bards,  hence,  a  speech,  tale, 
sermon,  proverb,  riddle,"  Cf.  above,  (p.  87)  and  see  Merbot,  Aeslhetischs 
Studien  zur  Angelsdchsischen  Poesie,  Breslau,  1883,  p.  19  2. 

4b-5a.  God  shall  one  first  praise,  becomingly,  our  Father.  Tb.,  'God 
before  all  must  one  praise  fei-vently.'  I  iollow  Gr.'s  punct.,  not  W.'a. 
Cf.  Virgil's  In  pHinis  venerate  deos  {GeorgicSy  I,  338). 

5b.  cet  frym/)e  getcode,  in  the  beginning  assigned.  Cf.  Chr.  770-777; 
.  .  .  se  us  Fif  forgeaf  \  Leomit,  Uc  and  gxst.     Cf.  Met.  11^'. 

6b.   He  will  remind  us  of  those  gifts.     Cf.  Gen.  2933  ff. 

7b-8a.  Gr.  has  no  punct.  after  eorfean,  so  that  a  translation  of  his  text 
mu-st  read,  '  Man  shall  on  earth  grow  old.'  So  Mii.  W.  places  a  comma 
after  eorfian.  Th.  places  a  semicolon  after  the  translation  of  eorpan,  a 
punct.  which  seem?,  to  me  not  only  to  break  properly  the  gnome,  '  Man 
shall  (dwell)  on  earth,'  from  the  following,  'The  young  shall  gi'ow  old'; 
but  also  throws  strongly  into  contrast  la  with  lb,  and  8a  with  8i.  Str. 
favors  this  reading. 

9a.  Cf .  this  line  with  5a,  Gn.  C.  God  has  here  become  stronger  than 
"Wyrd :  the  fates  affect  him  not. 

1  See  p.  114  for  list  of  abbreviations.  In  these  notes  double  quotation 
marks  are  employed  for  indicating  words  of  other  authors,  single  quota- 
tion marks  for  representing  translations  made  by  them  or  implied  by 
their  texts.  Readings  of  the  present  editor  are  not  designated  by  quota- 
tion marks  at  all. 

130 


NOTES   OK  GNOMIC   VERSES  131 

9b-10a.  Nor  doth  one  whit  trouble  Tiim  disease  nor  age,  the  Almighty. 
Cf.  Beo.,  1736-1737  :  no  hir.e  wiht  dweleS,  |  ddl  ne  yldo.  Th.,  '  nor  doth 
aught  ?.fflict  him.'  B-T.,  p.  1222,  glosses  wiAt,  'thing.'  My  translation 
ia  in  hfTmoay  with  Gr.,  who  places  no  comma  after  drece/>.  W.  inserts 
a  comma. 

11a.  gomelafS,  not  given  in  B.-T.  Spr.,  I,  380,  gamelian,  inveterascere. 
O.  3.  Schlutter  writes  at  length  about  this  word  in  Eng.  St.,  XLI,  456- 
He  suggests  its  resemblance  to  Celtic  gam  =  loiiiter,  and  to  lYisian 
gammelje  =  krdnkeln. 

12a.  />eoden,  found  almost  exclusively  in  poetry.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  1048 ; 
Spr.,  II,  680. 

12b.  gepoHJ,  I  read  plu.  Th.  regards  it  as  sing.  —  syleiJ,  Cf.  Wr., 
§§  254,  270. 

13.  Different  dispositions,  many  tongues.  MS.  monge  reorde,  so  Gr. 
and  Sob.,  but  Th.  divides,  mon-gereorde,  'human  speech.' 

14b.  /te/'me/^ioMe,  embraces  far  and  wide.     Th., '  in  its  wide  embrace.' 

17b-18a.  Cf.  Troilus,  II,  28:  In  sondry  londes,  sondry  ben  usages^ 
Hending,  stanza  4;  Ase  fele  thedes,  ase  fele  thewes,  and  other  parallels 
cited  in  SkeaL's  ^.  E.  Proverbs,  1910,  p.  00.  Cf,  also  Skeat's  introduction, 
p.  7,  where  he  observes  that  this  is  a  favorite  proverb  in  most  European 
language."?,  occurring  in  more  than  sixty  form.s. 

18b.  />ing  gehegan,  to  have  a  meeting.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  399.  Conven- 
tional expression  in  verse  for  holding  a  parliament  or  meeting  (but  cf. 
Beo.  425  ff.)  ;  it  is  not  used  in  prose.     Cf.  Sigrdrifom^l,  24. 

20a.    Tliey  ever  setcle  dispute.     Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  862. 

?,2-23.  "  -ein  zusammeugehbris^es  dLstichon,  das  an  den  vorhergehenden 
sprach  des  verwandteu  sinnes  wegen  angehiingt  ward.  Auch  24-26 
tilden  keine  fortsetzung  [but  cf.  gc>'i(BCcan  with  cennan'],  sind  in  sich 
aber  schon  und  zu.sammengehorig :  der  geburt  des  menschen  wird  im 
bilde  dessen  endschicksal  gegeniibergestellt."  —  Str.,  op.  cit.  p.  56. 

Out  of  22a,  226,  23a,  236,  I  make  four  gnomes.  Th.  places  a  period 
after  tilum  and  after  gemoiccan  ;  Gr.,  a  colon  after  tUum,  a  period  after 
gcmoRCcan;  Gr^.,  period  after  tilum,  comma  after  gemocccan.  Brand! 
sees  in  236  an  injunction  to  monogamy  ! 

24-25a.  Cf.  Fates  of  Men,  2-3,  loer  and  wif  in  vooruld  cennaS  beam 
mid  gcbiird:tm. 

25b-26.  A  tree  shall  on  eartli  suffer  as  to  its  leaves,  lament  its  branches. 
Cf.  Gji.  C,  33--34.  With  li/^a7i,  cf.  DUG.  I'ldan,  to  go,  yield,  suffer. 
leafum  Ufian,  may  mean  'give  up  leaves.'  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  644.  Th.  sug- 
gested changing  gnorninn  to  grownn,  and  reading,  'with  leaves  flourish, 
with  branches  grow.'  —  ieomu,  cf.  Wr.,  §  100-101. 

It  is  possible  that  256-29a  may  be  a  figurative  way  of  saying  that 
parents  lo.so  their  cliildren  and  strive  against  tlie  separation.  But  transi- 
tions are  abrupt  in  gnomic  verse,  and  veiled  allusions  unusual,  therefore 
I  prefer  to  read  256-26  literally,  and  to  see  in  27-29a  a  new  gnome  not 
directly  connected  v/ith  what  precjdes.      Brandl  thinks  the  origin  of  this 


132  GNOMIC  POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 

passage,  2off,  is  to  be  found  in  Boethius,  Cons.  Phil.  L.  II,  Met.  8.     Per- 
haps he  meant  to  cite  Met.  6  ? 

27.    fxge  stceUan,  cf.  An.  1530,  fs^ge  swulton. 

29b-34.  An  exceedingly  awkward  passage,  displaying  the  gnoiric  ccl- 
lector'8  weakness  in  versification  and  syntax.  I  read  :  The  Creator  alone 
knows  whence  [hic.xr  for  /uro/ian?]  the  malady  comes  wni^h  hence  from 
the  country  goes.  He  increases  children,  whom  early  disease  takes  (or, 
the  child  increaseth  those  [whom]  disease  has  taken) ;  thus  there  are 
on  earth  so  mr.  ly  of  the  race  of  men  ;  there  would  not  be  (on  the  other 
hand)  measure  (limiting)  of  mankind  on  earth,  if  he  did  not  decrease 
them,  who  this  world  created.  Th.  reads  ier  ddl  as  two  words,  following 
the  MS.  as  I  do.  Gr.  used  this  reading  at  first,  but  in  6'pr.  and  Germ.  X, 
he  compounded  the  two.  W.  follows  Or-.  Later  Edd.  stand  by  Th. 
Cf.  Holt.,  Angl.  BeL,  XXI,  154.  Cf.  also  B.-T.,  p.  17,  Mr-ddl  =  'early 
disease,'  and  p.  1088  (where,  inconsistently,  icr  is  translated  'before'). 
Gr.  puncts.  cymcp.  pe  heonan  .  .  .  geroiteS,  umbor  yceS,  wr  ddl  nimetS  : 
Gr^.,  cyme/>,  .  .  .  geioitetS.      Umbor  .  .  .  Sirddl  nimeS. 

30b.  cy/)/>fi.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  1<J1.  This  may  mean  either  'knowledge,' 
a  reading  which  W.  prefers,  or  'a  known  region,  country,'  and  so  I  take 
it.     Spr.,  I,  181,  glosses  ry/>,  *  landschaft.' 

31.    7uman  is  preserved  in  the  slang  word  nim  =  steal,  E.-T.,  p.  721. 

34a.  hi,  ace.  — rcanige,  trans,  vb.  Cf.  modern  wane,  intrans.  —  teode, 
created. 

35a.  This  line  is  practically  identical  with  Sea/.,  100,  dol  biS  se  f>e  him 
his  dryhten  ne  oitdritdeS,  cymeS  hint,  deaS  nu/^inged.  Ot  the  same  type 
are  ]Vand.,  112,  Til  hi/>  se  />e,  etc.,  and  Sul.  and  6'ai.,  224,  Dol  biS  se  8e, 
etc. 

35b.  /ors,  Cf.  Sh.,  p.  118.  With  (o  after  verb  of  motion  to  express 
object  of  motion. 

S6a-   heorgntJ,  w.  dat.  dawhim,  protect  their  souls. 

37-38.  I  read  :  Blessed  is  he  who  in  his  home  prospers  ;  miserable  ho 
■whom  his  friends  deceive  ;  never  shall  he  be  blessed  to  whom  his  pro- 
vision fails  :  he  shall  be  bound  for  a  time  by  need.  Th.  '  He  shall  never 
.  .  .  whose  provision  fails.  Need  shall  have  time.'  He  carries  gebunden 
over  to  the  next  gnome  and  reads,  gebunden  Wipe  sceal  bealoleas.  Likewise, 
he  takes  hcorte  from  39a  and  makes  it  the  initial  word  of  396  ;  but  see 
below.  Distich  37-38  has  been  the  subject  of  investigation  by  Holt- 
hausen.  In  Eng.  St.,  XXXVII,  109,  he  suggests  nyde  for  nyd.  "Zu 
nefre  sceal  ist  oflenbar  aus  dem  vorhergehenden  ein  eadig  loesan  zu 
ergjinzen ;  zu  gebunden  bloss  tre.<taji."  His  reading  would  thus  be 
equivalent  to  my  translation,  above.  He  pursues  the  subject  in  Angi. 
Bei.  XXI,  154.  "So  ist  offenbar  mit  besserung  der  interpunktion  zu 
lesen,  donn  ein  adj.  nefre  '  infirmus,  invalidus,'  das  Grein-  allerdings  mit 
fragezeichen  anzetzt,  wird  sclnverlich  anzunehmen  sein.  Dies  als  ne 
(zfrc  zu  erkliiren  und  zu  afar  (1.  dfor!)  zu  Ziehen,  ist  vollends  verkehrt, 
da  n  doch  kein  priifix  ist."     He  then  observes  that  Th.  has  recognized  the 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  133 

meaning  of  the  passage,  though  leaving  a  lacuna  for  the  evidently  tuider- 
Btood  eadig  wesan.  Holt,  ends  by  dismissing  as  "  verkehrt"  the  note  of 
Schlutter  in  Eng.  St.,  XLI,  828.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  706,  '  Never  shall  he  thrive 
whose  provision  fails  him,'  etc.  Str.  comments,  "wenn  386  zu  ilber- 
setzen  ist,  '  das  ungliick  sei  auf  immer  gefesselt,'  so  trennt  das  distichon 
87,  38  von  den  Ubrigan  sechs  versen."  Of  the  same  type  as  37a  is 
Seaf.  107. 

39a.   Glad  shal'  be  the  innocent  heart. 

39b.  The  blind  shall  suffer  of  (or  loss  of )  his  eyes.  Th.  begins  39a 
with  gebn)iden,  from  1.  38,  tlien  carries  heorte  over  to  396,  so  that  the 
passage  through  44  has  a  figurative  meaning.  — /mlian,  cf.  dialect  thole, 
and  B.-T.,  p.  106  (iii). 

40.  He  shall  be  deprived  of  clear  sight,  him,  referring  to  blind,  the 
person  ;  h'l  referring  to  eagna.  —  oftigen,  from  ofteon,  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  742, 
•w.  dat.  of  pers.  and  gen-  of  thing.  Cf.  Wt.,  §  442,  for  oftigen,  pp.  form. 
—  tunglu,  heavenly  bodies,  with  which  sunnan  and  monan,  1.  41,  are  in 
apposition.  — (7es^■/!^  Angl.  form  ?  Cf.  WS.  gesieh/>,  and  Wr.,  §§  99,  184. 
It  may  be  LWS.  In  tae  MS.  the  second  i  in  bewltian  is  inserted  above 
the  line,  —  later  hand  ? 

41.  Swegltorht,  adj.,  mod.  tunglu,  above.  Th.,  'the  heaven-bright 
sun,'  which  is  infljctionally  wrong:  swegltorht  is  the  reg.  form  for  ace. 
plu.  of  this  neuter  adjective-     Cf.  Met.  29-». 

42a.  The  first  part  of  this  line  is  puzzling.  Th.  reads,  '  inasmuch  that 
he  alone  knows  it.'  Gr.  suggests  that  onge  is  derived  from  onga,  a  thorn  ; 
hence,  his  translation  would  substantially  be,  '  A  thorn,  since  he  alone 
knows  it.'  I  think  otige  may  be  a  variant  for  ange,  troubled, 
sorrowful  ;  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  46.  I  read  416-42a,  therefore,  That  to  him 
will  be  distressing  in  his  raind,  sorrowful,  since  he  alone  knows 
it.  A  passage  in  Oron.  (II,  5),  has  almost  the  same  expression  : 
tT(i  inces  tiCnu  cijnii.ge  sw'iSe  ange    on   hia   mode. 

44.  of  heofc'dij imme ,  following  MS.  Th.  proposes  heafod-gimmum ; 
Gr.  on  hciifodgimme.  Cf.  also  Spr.,  II,  43.  W.  sees  heofod  as  dialect. 
Po.ssibly  the  scribe  made  an  error  in  spelling.     Cf.  1.  68,  An.  31. 

45a.  Th.  reads  iefinon,  '  a  lover '  !  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  627,  lef,  weak,  injured, 
and  Spr.,  II,  167,  lef,  injirmus. 

47.  W.  thinks  the  beginning  of  47  is  lost,  '  Ich  nehme  hier  eine  Iticke 
an,  obgleich  kelne  spur  einer  solchen  in  der  hs.'  Siev.  sees  no  gap, 
but  a  finished  stanzaic  form.  Kaluza,  Eng.  St.,  XXI,  383,  would  write 
the  two  lines  (46^7)  as  one,  making  truly  a  "  schwell verse."  Holt., 
Angl.  Bei.,  XXI,  164,  objects  :.o  the  first  half  of  the  line  containing  four 
accents,  and  suggests  that  and  tyhtan  is  an  addition  of  the  scribe. 
Ho  would  read  as  one  line  46  and  47,  omitting  and  tyhtan.  This  is  tak- 
ing a  good  deal  of  liberty  with  the  text,  particularly  since  the  phrase 
trymman  and  tyhian  is  essentially  AS.  in  its  tautological,  alliterative 
quality. — on  gewitie  aliSde,  until  ho  be  brought  into  understanding. 
B.-T.,  supp.  p.  33,  '  until  he  be  brought  to  exercise  his  reason.' 


134  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

49.  cildgeongne.  I  follow  the  MS.  ia  retaining  this  form,  which  I  re- 
gard as  an  ace.  adj.,  the  second  part  of  the  compouno.  receiving  the 
adjectival  inflection.  Or.,  Spr.,  I,  IGO,  glosses  the  word  as  a  nora.  adj., 
and  regards  the  n«  as  sign  of  the  negative.  So  do  other  Edd.,  ap- 
parently. 

51a.  Th.,  '  With  strong  mind  shall  a  man  govern.'  This  Una  is  iden- 
tical with  Seaf.  \Wa,  Stieran  mon  sceal  strongum  mode.  —  styran,  ci. 
B. -'!".,  p.  917,  steoran,  where  'restrain'  is  suggested.  For  the  various 
forms,  cf.  Wr.,  §  138. 

52b-53a.  They  begin  angrily  to  hasten,  the  dusky  waves,  at  a  distance, 
to  the  land.  Th.,  on-faran,  and  translates,  'the  ocean  in  rough  sni'.sous 
strives  fiercely  to  tend,  dusky  to  move  to  land.'  For  fundian,  Or.  offers 
fandian.  —  fealwe.  Mead  notes  (PMLA.,  XIV,  11G9  ff.)  occurs  in  AS. 
poetry  17  timei?.  It  is  an  indefinite  color.  "The  prevailing  meaning," 
Mead  says,  "  appears  to  be  a  pale  yellow  shading  into  red  or  brown, 
and  in  some  cases  into  green." 

53b.  he  seems  to  refer  to  lond,  but  lond  is  neuter  ;  perhaps  personifica- 
tion explains  the  constniction.  Gr.  suggests  hit.  Str.  thinks  51-64 
belong  together,  that  to  the  ethical  idea,  '  one  with  strong  mind  shall 
rule,'  is  joined  a  comparison  from  nature,  that  of  the  ocean  in  storm.  In 
this  case,  he  would  be  explained  as  referring  to  tnon ;  but  it  seems  to  me 
better  to  read  the  gnomes  separately,  keeping  the  meani^g  distinct  in 
each  case.     Note  end-rhyme  5oa-536. 

54a.  him.  that  is,  waves  implied  in  fealwe  (the  walls  shall  hold  resist- 
ance to  them).     Gr.  sc.  ytJu,  and  .S'yr.,  I,  28(3,  ttndre  f 

54b.  Ann,  that  is,  loenUas  f  ov  loeallas  and  ytSa  J  Lit.  to  thera  is  the 
wind  in  common,  mutual.  Th.,  'is  the  wind  indifferent,'  which  W. 
challenges,  "  Woher  komint  diese  bedeutung?  "'  0.  B,  Schlutter  regards 
the  word  equivalent  to  geimX'jne  =  geioealden.  Poti^stati  sitbjectus,  he 
says,  is  the  idea,  and  translates,  '  ihnen  (den  maucrn)  ist  der  wind 
untertan.'  He  cites  li.  Ben.,  Ill,  19  (Vol.  2,  p.  15,  Gr.'s  BihUothek 
der  Angelsachsischcn  Prosa).  Ilis  suggestion  is  not  altogether  convinc- 
ing by  way  of  proof,  but  deserves  acknowledgment. 

55.  Observe  the  comparison  introduced  here  and  extending  through 
o9a.  Str.  sees  in  the  passage  a  reversal  of  the  method  used  in  51-54. 
Here,  55-59a,  the  metaphor  proceeds  from  nature,  with  an  application  to 
mankind.  The  metrical  form  is  identical  with  one  form  of  the  IjoSahdttr 
strophe.     Cf.  Siev^.,  p.  14.5,  and  below. 

59a.  Bold  men  (are)  powerful  through  tlieir  nature.  Cf.  Th.  and 
B.-T.,  p.  382.  \y.  places  no  mark  after  henUa/f,  5Sb,  hence  his  reading 
would  be  substantially,  '  and  then  with  comrades  hold,  bold  men,  genial 
rule.' 

59b-60.  Gr.  and  W.  .'make  60  supplement  596.  I  prefer  a  division  by 
which  two  gnomes  appear:  A  king  is  de.sirous  of  power.  Hateful  is  he 
who  claims  land,  dear  he  who  gives  more  (land). — londes  monaS,  cf. 
B.-T.,  p.  688  (iv). 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  135 

61a.   A^m,  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  1074  (Ui). 

61b.  />riste,  in  a  good  sense,  confident. 

62.   I  regard  ttis  line  au  extension  of  616,  not  of  61  entire. 

63a.  eos  boge,  horse's  back;  lit.  the  shoulder  of  the  horse  ;  cf.  B.-T., 
p.  115. 

63b.  eorod  for  worod.  eorod  satisfies  the  alliteration  and  contrasts 
•with  fe/>a,  64.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  to  be  the  correct  form.  The 
meanings  are  nearly  identical:  eorod  =  eoh +'rad,  troop  of  cavalry; 
werod  =  wer  +  rad,  multitude,  army.  Cf.  Wr.,  §161.  With  63,  cf. 
Gn.  a  32. 

64b.  It  is  fitting  for  a  woman  to  be  at  her  board,  table.  I  find  no 
other  instance  cf  the  weak  form,  horde.  It  may  mean  table  ;  it  may 
refer  to  the  embroidery  board.  Cf.  Volsunga  Saga,  Ch.  XXIV,  the 
passage  on  Brunhilde  at  her  embroidery. 

65a.  'iv  gadding  woman  gets  words  (a  bad  reputation),'  B.-T.,  p.  444. 
With  656,  cf.  1016.  Cf.  also  Siev.,  478,  who  suggests  dividing  lines  65 
Rnd  101,  so  as  to  make  two  out  of  each,  the  effect  being  analogous  to 
that  of  lj6Sah^Utr. 

66.  Th.  translates,  '  A  man  thinks  of  her  with  contempt ;  oft  her  cheek 
smites.'  I  read,  Men  think  of  her  with  contempt ;  often  her  face  fades. 
Jlleor  is  nom.,  and  since  m^na^  is  phi.,  it  is  better  to  read  hleor  the 
subject  of  ahrto/jeS,  than  to  make  man  understood  or  inferred  the  subject. 
Jlxle^,  0'5a,  is  evidently  plu.  (Since  writing  this  note,  I  observe  that 
B.-T.,  supp.  p.  4,  suggests  '  her  good  looks  are  lost.' 

67.  sceomiande  man,  Th.  translates,  '  A  bashful  man,'  a  reading  which 
spoils  the  contrast.  Read,  A  shamed  man  shall  go  in  the  shade  ;  it  is 
fitting  that  a  pure  one  (walk)  in  the  light. 

68a.  liand  shall  lie  on  head,  etc.  lleofod  troubles  Gr.,  who  suggests 
phiustts  ?  and  in  Spr.,  II,  03,  does  not  venture  to  suggest  a  rendering. 
Tapper  (JEG.  Ph.,  .Ian.,  1012)  comments  on  these  lines  in  connection 
with  hand  ofer  hrafod.  He  says  :  "  —  it  Ls  obvious  from  the  accompanying 
gnomes  that  the  reference  is  to  some  ceremony  at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
pensing of  treasure  by  the  lord  to  his  men  — some  rite  of  the  Comitatus. 
The  chief's  hand  is  evidently  laid  upon  his  retainer's  head,  but  how  and 
why  ?  I  believe  that  the  answer  to  this  question  is  given  in  certain  well- 
known  verses  of  the  AVaiulerer,  41-44  :  hinceS  him  on  mode  \>iei  be  his 
mondrj'hten  |  clyppe  a)id  cysse,  and  on  cneo  lecge  |  handa  and  he;vfod, 
svvii  hehwilum  ;er  |  in  geardagum  giefstOhia  breac."  Tupper  thinks  the 
exile  is  lecalling  the  k^ustoui  of  the  commendation  "by  which  .  .  .  the 
v.assal  pleaged  his  loyalty  and  trust  in  return  for  his  chief's  gold  and  protec- 
tion. .  .  .  This  pledge  of  the  clansman  is  the  pracipinm  sacramentum  of 
the  Germania  of  Tacicus  (Ch.  14  ),  the  oath  of  fealty  of  the  Beowulf,^^ 
etc.  In  any  case,  Tupper  contends  that  this  gnome  shows  that  the  chief 
placed  his  hand  on  the  warrior's  head  when  he  dealt  to  him  gifts. 
Further,  see  JEO.  Ph.,  April,  1012,  wherein  Tupper  notes  that  L.  M. 
Larson  has  called  his  attention  to  an  article,  The  Household  of  (he  Nor- 


136  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

we.gian  Kings,  in  The  American  Historical  Review,  XIII,  439-479,  and  to 

his  (Larson's)  footnote  on  the  lines  in  the  Wanderer,  as  the  earliest  com- 
plete record  of  a  most  important  ceremony.  Thus  is  new  support  given 
to  the  meaning  of  the  phrase,  hand  ofer  henfod.  Cf.  also  York  Powell's 
comment  in  Elton's  Saxo  Orammalicus,  p.  xxvi,  "Allegiance  was  paid  by 
kneeling  and  laying  the  head  down  at  the  lord's  knee,  as  the  beautiful  pas- 
sage iu  the  Wanderer's  Lay  reminds  us."  Cf.  also  Charm  A  14  (Greadon, 
p.  178),  and  observe  that  the  meaning  is  probably  the  same.  Gift  of  life 
or  eternal  joy  might  be  fittingly  represented  by  the  Divine  Dispenser  per- 
forming an  act  similar  to  that  of  an  earthly  giver.  Grendon  (notes, 
p.  221)  seems  to  be  in  doubt.  —  inwyrcan,  to  consecrate  (by  laying  on  of 
hands)  ? 

68b  ff.  Th.  translates,  '  the  treasury  await  riches ;  a  present  stand 
prepared,  when  men  it  bestow.  Gra.sping  is  he  who  receives  gold,  a  man 
to  whom  in  a  high  station  is  enough,'  Rie.  tampers  conbiderably  with 
the  MS.,  but  admits  that  his  emendation  of  the  fust  half  lino  is  not  satis- 
factory. He  will  not  accept  streonnm;  "  i.st  .  .  .  er.tschieden  un- 
zulassig;"  streon  cannot  =  streoioen  =  stratum.  He  fails  to  understand 
what  the  '  hord  should  be  doing  in  bed,'  the  connection  seeming  to  escape 
him.  From  streonnm,  through  screonum,  he  would  evolve  'schatzkam- 
mer.'  Str.  says,  in  effect,  he  does  not  understand  C8a.  But  he  thinks 
the  entire  passage  nothing  more  than  the  request  of  a  wanderer  for  alma, 
thus  agreeing  with  Rie.,  who  notes  that  the  singer  having  come  to  the 
end  of  his  lay  hints  at  reward.  Tupper  reads  705,  '  Good  is  he  who 
receives  the  gold,  the  man  who  is  contented  on  the  high  seat.'  Krapp 
thinks  70b  means  simply  'man  (i.e.  lord)  on  high-seat  hath  possessed 
(or  enjoyed)  it.'  70a  means  that  the  eager  person  wants  the  gold  which 
the  lord  (in  10b)  has  possessed.  He  sees  in  71  the  usual  reward  for  gen- 
erosity. Lawrence  would  read  10b,  '  the  man  on  the  high-seat  is  not 
lacking  in  it,  i.e.  the  gold.'  Ayres  sees  also  a  strong  contrast,  and  reads, 
'  Greedy  is  he  who  receives  the  gold  [but]  th'5  man  (prince)  on  the  high- 
seat  is  sufficient  for  him,  or  it.'  I  would  read  the  whole  passage : 
Treasure  shall  rest  in  its  bed  (casket),  the  throne  will  stand  pre- 
pared, when  men  divide  it  (the  treasure).  Greedy  is  he  who  receives  the 
gold,  but  the  man  on  the  high-seat  will  satisfy  him.  I  am  inclined  to  see, 
with  Ayres,  adverbial  significance  in  /oes,  and  to  read  //ces  geneah,  '  will 
be  sufficient  for  that.' 

70b.  Sh.,  p.  21,  thinks  geneah  ■=  beneah,  and  reads:  u  man  has  need 
of  it  on  a  throne.     I  read,  geneah  from  genugan. 

71b.    lisse,  cf.  Chr.,  434,  He  him  pxre  lisse  lean  forgilde^. 


B 

73.  eorpe  groican,  earth  shall  grow,  with  trans,  suggestion.  Cf.  Th., 
'earth  [shall]  bring  forth.'  C,  '■terra  vigescet.^  Str.  thinks  possibly 
growan   is   "  nicht   richtig, "   that    another   word   of  different   meaning 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  137 

belongs  where  it  stands.  The  gnome  breaks  an  otherwise  unified  passage, 
it  is  true,  but  unity  is  not  a  characteristic  ot"  gnomic  utterance. 

73b-74.  Ice  shall  bridge  (over  water),  the  water  a  covering  wear,  (ice 
shall)  lock  up,  etc.  This,  my  reading,  conserves  the  AS.  verse  structure  ; 
r,hat  is,  I  see  in  74a  a  repetiiion.  C,  ^glacies  confringetur,  Aqua  navem 
(^tilmuin)  subvehet.''  Th., '  ice  break  ;  the  watery  deep  ac^itate.'  Ten  Br., 
'  Eis  sich  woUen,  der  wiisserhelm  tragen.'  Ma.,  'The  ice,  the  water  hel- 
met, locks  up  the  plants.'     Cf.  An.,  1201,  7s  brycgade. 

74b-76.  Ettm.  places  a  period  after  lucan,  no  mark  after  ci/nis  in  76. 
This  punctuation  sug^est-s  tho  reading,  One  shall  bind  up  the  plants  of 
the  earth.  I  trar.date  :  One  shall  unbind  the  frost's  fetters,  the  very 
mighty  God.  Inbindan  occurs  nowhere  else,  and  is  perhaps  interchange- 
able with  onbindan.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  589  (in),  and  B.-T.,  p.  747.  Equally 
pertinent,  however,  would  it  be  to  separate  m  from  bindan  and  read.  One 
shall  bind  on  the  fetters  of  the  frost.  Gr.,  *S';)r.,  II,  194,  thinks  lucan  ia 
intrans. —  "sich  schliesxen."    Str.,  "Gott  allein  lost  das  fesselnde  band." 

77a.  I  read,  Winter  shall  depart.  Th.,  'the  much  mighty  God  winter 
shall  cast  forth.'  With  winter  .  .  .  geweorpan,  cf.  winter  geworp,  An., 
1256.  Weder  may  mean  weather,  bad  weather,  or,  as  here,  good  weather. 
But  C,  'tempestas:     Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  1182,  and  Kr.,  An.,  p.  168. 

78b.  Beginning  with  this  line,  I  see  through  81  a  series  of  short 
gnomes,  and  read :  The  sea  shall  be  unquiet  ;  that  is,  it  is  the  nature  of 
the  sea  to  be  restless.  The  solemn  {deop,  profundus)  way  of  the  dead  is 
longest  secret.  Holly  shall  to  the  fire.  The  property  of  a  dead  man  shall 
be  divided.  Glory  (fame)  is  best  (dom  =  kX^o  AvdpQiv,  Chadwick,  Heroic 
Age,  p  329).  Th.,  'The  sea  is  unsiill  ;  deep  the  way  of  the  dead,  A 
secret  shall  be  longest  hidden.  Shall  among  men  the  inheritance  be 
divided  of  a  dead  man.'  That  is,  Th.  ends  79  with  holen,  and  in  80  .sub- 
stitutes celeS  for  xled.  Ettm.  reads  a  period  after  hat,  a  comma  after 
unstille,  a  comma  after  tceg,  a  period  after  lengest.  Gr.,  •  Die  tiefe  todte 
woge  bleibt  am  lani^sten  (unter  der  eisdecke)  verborgen.'  Ten  Br., 
'  Am  liingsten,  in  der  tiefe  birgt  sich  die  todte  woge.  Die  stechpalm  soil 
in's  feuer.'  Str.,  'die  tiefe  tote  woge  i.st  am  langsten  bose  (gewesen).' 
Brooke,  '  The  dead  depth  of  ocean  forever  is  dark.'  Mii.  thinks  796  is  a 
separate  gnome.  Cf.  Holt.,  Eug.  .9r.,XXXViI,  199,  who  suggests  ofen 
for  holen.  The  form  woeg  is  an  orthographic  variation,  and  the  change 
to  weg  is  unnecessary.     Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  1183. 

80.  This  line  shows  end-rhyme  in.stead  of  alliteration.  Th.  would 
force  an  alliteration  by  seeing  in  xled,  (sleS  for  hceleS.  Unnecessary  jug- 
gling, llanscom,  JEG.Ph.,  V,  446,  seems  to  think  this  line  means 
holly  is  good  for  burning.     Cf.  Brandl,  p.  902,  note. 

81.  Bom  hi/j  selast.  Cf.  Beo.  13886-1389a.  Gr.  thinks  dom  =  '  ruhm  '; 
so  Ten  Br.,  '  Ruhm  ist  das  beste.'  Koegel,  '  dem  toten  istnachruhm  das 
beste,'  and  traces  origin  to  Homer.     (Cf.  also  introd.,  pp.  38,  3X) 

82.  A  good  example  of  ornate  diction  :  The  king  shall  buy  a  queen 
with  property,  with  cups  and  bracelets.     Cf.   On.    C.   46,   Ht^vam^l  91. 


138  GNOiUC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

85b-86.  And  the  woman  thrive,  dear  with  her  people.  MS.  io/,  Th. 
translates  'beloved,'  thourjh  he  fails  to  suggest  leof  as  emendation.  Cf. 
Rie.,  Lesebuch,  p.  xxvi,  and  Beo.  24  ff.,  LofdiBdum  sceal  .  .  .  man  ge/>ion. 

87a.    rune  healdan  =  keep  counsel. 

88.  meodoriPdenne,  the  only  instance  of  this  compound,  Sw.  defines  as 
a  collective  noun  meaning  'strong  drinks.'  (On  -rceden,  cf.  TVr.,  §  610, 
and  Kluge,  Xo/ninale  Staminbihlu)igslehre,  §  102).  B.-T.,  p.  677.  sug- 
gests 'cellars,  metonymy  for  liquors.'  I  think  the  ceremonial  of  the 
mead-cup  is  referred  to. 

89a.  MS.  sorge  siS  inctgen.  I  fail  to  make  any  meaning  out  of  these 
words,  which  palceographically  may  easily  be  confuset'.  with  for  gesid- 
mmgen.  So  facsimile  of  Exeter  MS.  I  translate,  accordingly,  before 
the  courtiers,  the  train.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  442,  'a  multitude  of  companions.' 
Th.,  'toward  his  friends,  ever,  everywhere'  Or.  has  no  punct.  from 
m<7/'/nw7/i  through  gegretan.  W.  notes,  'Ettm.  andert  in  :  sorge  si Sraaegen 
simle  cegh\v;er.'     But  Ettm.  has  merely  retained  the  MS. 

90.  (The  wife)  shall  the  nobles'  chief  first  greet.  I  understand  the 
entire  passage  from  85fc  through  93  to  refer  to  the  queen.  She  shall 
earn  praise;  be  cheerful  of  mood  ;  keep  counsel ;  be  munificent  in  horses, 
trea.sures ;  with  [the  ceremony  of]  the  mead,  before  the  train,  always, 
everywhere,  shall  first  greet  the  nobles'  chief  (her  husband)  ;  the  firet 
cups  to  the  lord's  hand  quickly  present,  shall  know  wise  counsel  for  them 
(herself  and  husband),  the  house  owners,  both  together.  Cf.  Beo.  612  ff. 
the  picture  of  Weallitheow  moving  among  the  guests,  and  Beo.  1216,  the 
speech  wherein  Wealhtheow  presents  the  collar  to  Beowulf.  Cf.  also 
Tupper,  Biddies,  p.  218,  and  Gummere's  translation  of  the  passage  at 
hand,  OEE.,  p.  50,  note,  and  Atlakvit^a,  38. 

91b.    hand  for  honda. 

92b.    ff.  Ten  Br.,  '  '.{ath  ersinnen  sollen  des  hauses  herren  zusammen.' 

95.   The  only  occurrence  of  the  adj.  use  of  linden. 

95b-100.  An  often  quoted  passage.  Dear  the  welcome  one  to  the  Frisian 
■wife,  when  the  vessel  stands  :  when  his  ship  is  come  and  her  husband  at 
home,  her  own  provider,  and  she  invites  him  in,  washes  his  sea-stained 
garments  and  gives  him  new  weeds  :  pleasant  is  it  to  him  on  land  whom  his 
love  constrains.  Gollaucz  (Chr.,  I,  16)  has  a  pretty  verse  translation,  but 
he  renders  in  laSn/>  -leads  to  (the  board),'  and  biL-de(5,  'awaits.'  S.  A.. 
Brooke  {E.  E.  Lit.,  I.,  233)  thinks  this  passage  may  have  arisen  concerning 
one  of  the  Frisian  band  which  seems  to  have  settled  to  the  North  of  the 
Tweed.  Ma.  has  a  queer  notion  concerning  this  Frisian  woman.  He  holds 
that  frisan  =  'frizzled,  ringleted,  with  a  wealth  cf  tresses,'  not  Frisian  ! 

100.  Ten  Br.  translates,  '  Am  lande  wohnt  ihm  was  seine  lieb 
ersehnet.'  Ma.,  '  waiteth  for  him  on  the  land  .  .  .  that  his  love  demand- 
eth.'  That  is,  he  sees  a  missing  word.  Cf.  Sh.,  p.  23,  'whom  his  love 
constrains,  or  because   (J>ies)  love  constrains  him   (his).' 

101a.  See  above  (p.  92)  and  cf.  IJ'jvamiJl,  83,  for  a  more  cynical 
tone  :  Meyjar  orf>om  skyle  mange  trim. 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC    VERSES  139 

101b.  Cf.  65.  •  I  read,  Often  she  dishonors  men  with  her  Tices.  Bi, 
though  companitively  rare,  is  a  nominative  form.  Rie.  omits  1016,  be- 
lieving "data  die  worte  oft  .  .  .  behliS  nur  durch  versehen  von  65  her- 
genommen  wiiren,"  and  W.  adds,  "  eine  ansicht  die  sehr  v^ahrscheinlich 
ist."  On  the  lengtli  of  101,  Schmitz  says  (p.  00),  "101  nimmt  K.  ala 
geschwelltj  zeile,  -Joch  glaube  ich  mit  Rieger  dasa  die  worte  oft  bis  hehliS 
nur  durch  versehen  von  66  iiergenommen  Hind." 

102.  Many  a  one  is  (of  the)  steadfast ;  many  a  one  (of  the)  inquisitive. 

103.  I  read,  She  courts  strange  men.  Cf.  Gn.  C.  43,  and  Tfie  In- 
structions of  King  Cormac  Mac  Airt,  op.  cit.,  p.  22,  1.  38  :  '  Bad  women 
are  given  to  trysting. '  Grammar  favors  making  woman  the  active  agent 
instead  of  the  object  of  the  courting.  Th.,  however,  '  strange  men  court 
them.' 

104b.   leofes  loenan,  await  a  loved  one. 

105a.  gebidan  /j<zs,  wait  for  what  he  may  not  hasten.  Gr.  thinks  ne 
miglit  be  omitted.     Cf.  Sh.,  p.  S3. 

106b-107a.  Unless  tlie  ocean  restrain  him  ;  the  sea  has  him  in  its 
power.  Mundum  may  have  an  unfavorable  meaning,  clutches ;  if  it 
should  be  so  translated,  I  should  make  hafaS  also  modified  by  nefne. 

107b.  A  maid  is  the  delight  of  the  possessor.  Th.  suggests  egna 
{eayena)  for  7'gsan,  and  translates,  *  A  maid  is  the  delight  of  the  eyes.' 
Kttr.i.  and  Rie.  follow.  Gr.  punctuates:  gestyreH.  Jtlere  hafaS  viundiim 
micgo,  egsan  loyn.  Or,  he  thinks,  egsa  may  be  egsa^  '  possessor.'  Ma. 
agrees  with  Gr.'s  first  reading  ;  for  he  translates,  '  the  chief  of  terrors, 
i.e.  the  sea  (holJeth)  a  family  (many  sailors).'  W.,  "  obgleich  die  ord- 
nung  dergedaiiken  bei  Grein  eir.e  bes.sere  ist,  schloss  ich  mich  der  andren 
einfachern  erklarungsweise  an."  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  244,  egsa,  where  this  line 
is  referred  to.  Holt.,  Enp.  St.,  XXXVII,  100,  thinks  egna  correct,  but 
the  following  a-line  senseless.  He  iliinks  ceap  should  be  instrumental, 
and,  as  I  understand  him,  would  read,  'A  maid  (is)  the  delight  of  the 
eyes  ;  through  property  a  man  (is)  wealthy.'  Jlii.,  "  Die  sippe  [evidently 
for  ra;egii  =  kinsman]  ist  die  freude  des  besitzers." 

108-109.  Confusing  lines.  The  meaning  seems  to  be  something  like 
this  :  His  property  a  wealthy  man,  the  king  a  dwelling  will  sell,  to  the 
sailor  when  he  comes  sailing.  He  enjoys  wood  and  water,  when  a  dwell- 
ing is  granted  him.  Th.  reads  :  '  A  rich  man  his  cattle,  a  king  his  dwell- 
ing then,  with  liis  i)eople  snail  guard,  when  mariners  come,  wood  and 
water  use;  then  to  them  is  a  dwelling  granted.'  Ma.  reads:  'A  rich 
man,  a  king,  a  settlement  then  for  his  people  buys,  when  he  comes  sail- 
ing.' Rie.  punctuates  as  Th.,  ccap  eadig  mon,  cyning  lo'ic />onne,  leodon 
cype/f,  ponne  U/'an  cymeS.  Gr.,  ceap-cadig  mon  cyning  ic'ic  />onne  leodon 
type/).  Gr^.,  loic  />on  leodon  {=  />dm  leodum)  cTjpep.  But  as  W.  com- 
ments, 'Diese  iin  lerung  ist  unmoglich,  da /oH  nicht /on  inderhs.  steht.' 
I  follow  Gr.,  Hpr.y  II,  182,  in  making  leodon  =  lidan,  'sailor.'  Ma. 
agrees  with  Gr.  in  compounding  ceap  and  eadig.  —  For  liSan  cyme9,  cf 
B.-T.,  p.  643. 


140  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

111.  He  buys  meat,  if  he  needs  more,  before  he  becomes  too  faint. 
Who  is  '  he '  ?     Still  the  Railor-man  ? 

113.  ne  maeg,  etc.,  seems  to  be  an  idiomatic  expression  equivjueat  to 
our  '  can't  stand  the  weather' ;  but  B.-T.,  p.  69,  says,  '  he  may  not  be  in 
the  open  air.' 

114.  Overcome  is  he,  he  may  soon  die,  if  he  know  not  one  who  may 
feed  him  living.     But  Sir  may  mean  before.    Cf.  B.-T.,  pp.  6,  17. 

115b-116.  Cf.  above,  p.  92,  mor/>or  =  violent  death,  corpse  of  one 
whom  he  has  killed.  For  inor/)or,  cf.  h&wrence'' s  Ba}iished.\Vife^s  La- 
ment, loc.  cit.,  391.     With  this  passage,  cf.  Sigrdrifotn6l,  33,  counsel  9. 

118.  Note  the  rhyme,  gehnigan,  gesigan.  Adl  gesigan,  disease  lan- 
guish. Th.  reads,  'adl(i)ge  sigan,  the  diseased  sink.'  Or.  with  an  eye  to 
alliteration  offers  hadl,  haSu  f  But  what  does  he  mean  ?  Holt,  would 
write  hadl  =  heald,  half>  (bent  down)  and  cites  Sw. 

119a.  Tijht  rogian,  justice  shall  flourish.  Th.,  'justice  accuse,'  and 
queries,  'Ohg.  rcgjan'r'  B.-T.  is  at  a  loss  for  the  meaning;  Spr.,  II, 
383,  "  rogian  (ahd.  rukian)  florere,  crescere."     I  follow  this  etymology. 

120.  yfel  nnjvjttost,  piet  is  written  over  an  erasure.  —  nyttost,  unnyttost, 
example  of  what  Siev.  terms  "  gratiimatischer  reim." 

121.  A  unique  line.  It  puns  on  God  and  guod  and  rhymes  genge  with 
lenge.  The  tone  seems  to  be  tliat  of  a  real  proverb.  Good  is  prevalent 
and  has  afSnity  with  God.  B.-T.,  p.  421  (gengo),  'Good  prevails  and 
is  lasting  before  God.'  B.-T.,  p.  029  (lenge),  'Good  hath  affinity  with 
God.'  Cf.  Klieber,  Jif.  Ph.,  Ill,  240,  where  this  passage  is  compared  with 
one  from  Beo.,  and  the  meaning  '  at  hand '  suggested. 

122.  Thought  shall  be  restrained,  the  hand  shall  be  controlled  (by 
mind  ?)  A  common  gnomic  idea,  cf.  ]Vand.,  11  ff.  Note  the  alliteration 
and  the  rhyme. 

123.  The  apple  shall  be  in  the  eye.  Interesting  relic,  —  seo  =  apple  = 
pupil. 

123b.    After  in  and  before  breostum  there  is  a  slight  erasure. 

123.  A  good  scop  for  men,  spear-strife  for  heroes  (is  fitting)  ;  war  for 
resistance  to  hold  peace  among  dwellings.  Th.  translates,  'a  weapon  for 
enemies  (that  is,  gar  nipicerum) ,  war  for  an  adversary.'  etc.  Ettm., 
"  Thorpii  textus  recensionem  sum  secutus  ;  at  legi  etiara  potest,  quamvis, 
paganitatem  sapiat,  God  scop  (creavit)  gumum  garni^  verum,  vig  tovi'Sre. 
vie  .  .  ."  So  Rie.  understands,  but  writes  gar  n'lfivoeruin.  Gr.  g^d 
(bonus)  scop  gumum,  ga.rnV5  verum  v'lg  toviSre  vicfreo'Su  healdan.  Cf. 
also  Spr.  II,  549,  toviSre  =  '  contra  pugnam.'  B  (I  quote  from  W.),  goi 
{bonus)  scop  gumum,  gar  nWverum,  v'lg  toviSre  v'lcfreotJohealdan  =  '  apeer 
fiir  die  neidigen,  karapf  fiir  den  widersacher,  wohnung  far  friedenhalt- 
ende.' 

130-132.  Str.,  "  In  den  drei  folgenden  versen  130-132  ist  je  ein  halbvera 
einem  spruche  gewidmet." 

133.  Woden  created  idoU  (or  evils).  Str.  thinks  the  origin  of  this 
passage   is  Ps.    xcv,  5  :    Omnes  dii  gentium  dcemonia,  dominus   autem 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  141 

cellos  fecit.  Pope  Boniface  quotes  from  this  Psalm  In  his  letter  to 
Edwin,  King  of  the  Angles  (tee  Bede,  HE.,  II,  10).  The  writer  of  the 
gnomic  passage  may  have  translated  from  memory  or  he  may  have  mia- 
understood  in  making  fecit  a  governing  verb  also  for  the  first  passage. 
There  is  a  parallel  for  the  rest  of  the  speech  in  the  history  of  Edwin's 
conversion  (Bede,  EE.,  Ch.  II,  13),  "In  hac  pncdicatione  Veritas  claret 
ilia,  quse  nobis  vit^e,  salutis  et  beatitudinis  aiterase  dona  valet  tribuere." 
Forireos,  cf.  Spr.,  II,  731,  woh,  '  iniquitas' ;  B.-T.,  p.  1262,  woh,  crooked, 
and  looh,  wrong,  error. 

Since,  as  I  believe,  the  final  six  lines,  133-138,  are  the  addition  of  a 
late  scribe,  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  chapters  just  referred  to  may  have 
been  familiar  to  him.  But  the  parallelism  of  this  passage  with  the  pas- 
sages in  Bede  may  be  due  to  the  common  origin,  the  Bible. 

137.   eft  £t,  etc.     B.  translates,  '  wieder  am  ende.' 


140b.  leofes  in  MS.  seems  to  be  error  for  lofes :  merit  praise,  rather 
than  merit  a  lover.  Cf.  Spr.,  II,  192.  —  Oearnian  seems  to  be  a  con- 
traction for  ge-ej.rniun. 

141b.  dceges  onettan,  daily  be  diligent.  Cf.  The  night  cometh  when  no 
man  can  work  (John  ix,  4).  Dceges,  adverbial.  Cf.  Wr.,  657  ;  B.-T., 
p.  193. 

142.  A  good  man  remembers  (is  careful  of)  a  good  and  tame  horae. 
Th.  translates  mon  '  man,'  not  seeing  subst.  significance  of  til.  So  Ettm., 
who  notes,  " scil.  oyt}  toeorSe.''^  Mon  is  best  taken  as  3d  sg.  pres.  of 
vnaian. 

14Sb.   calcrondes,  a  compound  which  occurs  nowhere  else. 

144.  A  perfect  gnome.  No  man  gains  too  much.  Str.  notes  that  this 
lir.e  is  the  conclusion  of  the  four-line  alliterative  strophe  in  the  fornyrS islag, 
this  strophe  being  made  up  of  139,  140,  141,  144.  142  and  143  are  out  of 
place. 

146.  Often  one  goes  far  by  (about)  the  village,  where  he  knows  for 
himself  no  certain  friend.  -  Passing  the  dwellings  of  men,'  B.-T., 
p.  1019,  tUHP  (iv)  ;  'where  he  cannot  look  for  a  friend,'  B.-T,,  p.  1138. 
Th.  »  where  he  knows  a  friend  to  be  void  of  reproach.'  The  line  seems  to 
mean  that  one  avoids  a  place  where  there  are  no  friends.  —  unvoiotod, 
jSpr.  11,  030,  glossas  '  non  destinatus.' 

147.  Siev.  p.  464,  thinks  Ettm.  right  in  emending  to  wulf.  "  Nicht 
nur  geferan  ist  wahrscheinlich,  sondern  auch  das  folgende  felajaicne  deor 
istsicher  singular."  Bni  geferan  maybe  dat.  plu.,  and  though  wu// makes 
smoother  construction,  I  do  not  change  text. 

148.  The  dangerous  animal  ;  full  often  the  companion  tears  him.  MS. 
has/cccjie.  Ettm.,  "  fiecn,  dolcsus,  astutus  lupus  non  bene  dicitur,  optima 
tamen  fiecn,  pcriculosus,  terii'oilis."  \V.  adds  a  note  calling  attention 
to  fela-frixne  deor,  Jiune  Poem,  6.     As  he  suggests,  the  second  half-line, 


142  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

1486,  seem  to  indicates  frtcnt.  I  translate  accordingly,  though  I  have 
thought  it  wise  to  give  MS,  in  text.  Or.  punctuates :  geferan,  .  .  . 
deor :  .  .  .  sUiet!. 

149S.  Terror  shall  (arise)  because  of  the  gray  wolf,  :.  grave  (shall  be 
prepared)  for  the  dead  man.  (The  wolf)  laments  for  hunger;  he  does 
not  at  all  encircle  (?)  taat  {grccf)  with  lamentation,  nor  does  he  bevaJl 
the  slaughter,  the  gray  one,  the  mortality  of  aien,  but  ever  wishes  it  more. 
—  A  much  disput'.'d  p;issage.  Th.  reads  from  1496,  'The  grave  for  the 
dead  man  hungry  shall  groan  ;  not  with  howl  winds  round  it,  nor  indeed 
death  laments  the  gray  wolf,'  etc.  Ettm.  punctuates,  Ilungre  heofe'S 
naUs.  So  Gr.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  628,  '  Hungre  heofeS,  laments  for  hunger.' 
Mil.,  '  Selbst  iin  grabe  noch  verfolgt  den  menschen  der  falsche  freund 
(wulf).  Er  klagt  wohl,  aber  nicht  aus  auteil  (naUes),  sonderu  vor  hun- 
ger (llu'igre  heofeS),  well  er  niehta  mehr  zu  fressen  bekommt  (ac  hit 
a  mare  willo).'  Ettm.  q.  'greggum  =  gr;pgum  ?'  Lines  149-151  show 
two  of  the  seven  instances  where  this  word  occurs  in  AS.  poetry.  Ci. 
Mead,  loc.  cit. 

153.  A  bandage  shall  (be)  wound  ;  revenge  shall  be  for  the  brave  man. 
vsunden,  from  windan,  to  wind.  If  the  word  is  lound  =  wound,  and  the 
line  to  be  read,  A  bandage  shall  be  for  the  wound,  what  of  the  con.st.-uc- 
tion  of  xcuiid?  Or  if,  according  to  Th.,  lounden  =  wounded,  what  of  the 
construction  ?  As  alternative  to  my  own  reading,  I  offer,  A  fillet  shall 
be  rolled,  twisted.  Th.'s  change  of  icriSd  to  ipr;T5  is  unnecessary  ;  both 
forms  occur.  Th.  translates  icracit,  'exile.'  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  12G8,  xoracu, 
II  6.  Ayres  suggests  a  spirited  reading,  '  The  web  shall  be  woven,  misery 
(shall  be)  for  the  cruel  man,'  which  though  offering  a  new  interpretation 
of  xcried,  at  the  same  time  preserves  its  literal  meaning  of  '  that  which  is 
bound,  or  wound.'     Cf.  The  Fatal  Sisters,  by  Thomas  Gray. 

154b-155a.  Man  shall  have  both  alike  for  his  companions.  It  is  possi- 
ble that  the  meaning  may  be  that  bow  and  arrow  shall  be  to  each  other 
as  man  to  mate.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  412,  'A  bow  must  have  an  arrow,  a  man 
must  to  his  mate.'     Cf.  ON.  Enn  &  boga  orvar. 

155b.  Treasure  become  another's,  or  'change  hands,'  B.-T.,  p.  671. 
Th.  sees  in  the  Wine  a  continuation  of  the  first  half  line  and  reads,  'be 
the  other's  treasure.'  Ettm.  and  Gr^.  doubtless  see  a  similar  meaning; 
for  they  place  a  comma  after  ISSa,  and  a  period  after  1556.  Cf.  also 
MiL,  p.  2-3,  '  Der  mann  soil  mit  dem  genossen  so  untrennbar  verbunden 
sein  wie  bogen  und  pfeil,  ,  .  .  ein  geschenk  des  andern  wert  sein.'  Gr. 
originally  placed  a  period  after  gemccccan,  a  reading  which  W.  follows, 
as  I  do. 

156.  May  be  a  Christian  thought :  cf.  The  Lord  gave  and  the  Lord  hath 
taken  away  {Job  i,  21). 

158.  A  hall  shall  stand,  itself  grow  old.  Ettm.  offers  silfer,  argentum. 
Perhaps  syJfma.y  be  for  syll,  '  foundation  '  ? 

159.  lii'sest,  poetic  form,  liest  .being  the  only  form  common  in  WS. 
prose. 


NOTES   ON  GNOMIC   VERSES  143 

160.  Trees  shall  spread  and  truth  be  disseminated.  Cf.  B.-T., 
pp.  119,  111  9.  I  follow  MS.,  H.,  Th.,  and  Gr.  W.  reads »c«aJon6r«<fan. 
Th.  conjectures  treowu  needlessly,  Ireoio  also  being  a  form  of  the  nom. 
plu.     This  line  appears  to  pun  on  treo  and  treow. 

161.  s'w  has  for  intecedent,  treow. 

162-161  A  iy,dahattr  strophe.  Cf.  Siev^.,  p.  146.  Cf.  also  note  by 
Eutin. 

165.  Cf.  Siev.  and  Holt.  They  would  make  a  second  line  after  {^etr«ar?, 
one  having  timple  alliteration  :  cf.  Ij'j^aMUr  strophe.  As  it  stands,  this 
line  has  six  accents.     On  sceop  for  scop,  cf.  Wr.,  §  128,  n. 

166u.  To  every  one  of  men  wise  words  are  fitting.  Th.,  Ettm.,  Gr.  would 
change  woRra  to  we^-a.  Unnecessary,  the  form  here  found  occurs  else- 
where.   Cf.  Oospels  (Lind.  and  Rush.),  and  B.-T.,  p.  1241. 

167.  MU.  thinks  the  colorless  (juman  gains  its  true  significance  if  read 
as  'warrior,  opposed  to  singer,'  op.  cit.,  p.  23. 

168.  Cf.  Quot  homi7ies,  tot  sententioe  and  Minds  of  Men,  21-23. 
One  would  3xpect  monige  as  Ettm.  emends  (not  monig). 

169.  I  follow  Th.  in  ending  the  line  with  longat!  {langtiS),  and  I  trans- 
late, Each  has  for  himself,  app.rt,  a  desire  of  heart.  Whenever  one  sits 
apart  and  meditates,  he  grows  sad  ;  the  line  suggests  a  typical  AS.  sittia- 
tion.  Cf.  Wand.,  Ill,  gescet  him  surdar  wt  rUne.  Cf.  also  close  of  The 
Banished  Wife^s  Lament :    \Vd  biS  />dm  /e  sceal  of  langope  leofes  dh'idan. 

170  ff.  Gr.  and  W.  begin  this  line  with  Inngai.  Th.  and  Ettm.  see  a 
gap  after  ponne.  There  is  undoubted  difficulty  in  effecting  a  smooth 
translation.  The  meaning  seems  to  be,  Yet  the  less  the  u»an  who  knows 
many  songs  and  who  can  play  the  harp,  etc.  —  o/'/>e  =  and.  Cf.  Beo.  650, 
2254,  etc.  Allusions  in  AS.  poetry  to  the  harp  are  frequent,  but  with 
171  cf.  especially  Gifts  of  Me-i,  49,  and  Fates  of  Men,  80-81. 

173-174.  Miserable  is  he  who  'niLst  live  alone,  friendless  to  dwell  has  to 
him  fate  decreed.  W.,  "  Ettm.  nimmt  winel.  wun. ' ;;!.-;  objekt  zu  geteod.' 
So  fasse  ich  es  auch  auf."  But  Th.,  '  Miserable  Ls  he  who  must  live  alone, 
friendless  continue,  fate  has  ordained  it  to  him.' 

176.  MS.  eorle.  Th.  q.  '  eorlice  f  '  Ettm.  suggests  eorles,  and  W.  fol- 
lows. Jlolt.  prefers  eorlas  :  why  ?  Gr.  follows  MS.  as  I  do,  though  I  see 
no  translation  of  eorle  which  compares  favorably  with  that  of  eorles  in 
apposition  to  monries.  Eorle,  dat.,  to  a  man?  Note  pun  on  eafora  and 
eofor.  —  inc^ran  for  fcereu,  as  Ettm.  suggests.  —  sceoldan  for  sceoldon. 

177.  slipherde  deer,  the  bear. 

178-179.  Always  shall  these  warriors  carry  their  trappings,  and  with 
each  otiier  together  sleep.  For  gerxde,  trappings,  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  429,  and 
gertde,  p.  430.  But  B.-T.,  p.  429,  under  gerxdan,  'arrange,  dispose,' 
refers  to  this  line.  Spr.,  I,  440,  is  in  doubt,  suggesting  no  meaning,  but 
giving  ace.  as  cas3.  l^erliaps  the  word  is  for  riHd,  council,  then  ISidan  is 
figurative,  and  the  idea  becomes,  lead  a  council.  Koegel,  op.  cit.,  I,  76, 
geriid  anlS:dan. 

180.    A  hopeless  line,  as  it  stand.s.     Th.  thinks  the  second  mon  t5  an 


144  GNOMIC  POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

erroneous  repetition  by  the  scribe,  as  is  probably  the  case.  He  Is  perhaps 
VfTong  in  thinking  some  liaes  are  omitted  after  swcfan.  Cf.  Slev'.,  p. 
145,  Enough  is  omiLtecl  after  vu'Pdle  to  make  a  second  long  line  In  the 
strophe.  Or.  suggests  vurg  bemc'ican  to  till  the  gap.  The  meaning  is 
possibly  to  the  effect,  Never  shall  one  go  to  the  assembly  without  the 
other.  Cf.  Koegel,  op.  cU.,  I,  76,  '  immer  sollen  die  lielden  (einer  gefolg- 
scliaft)  sich  in  eiuander  schicken  uiid  bei  einander  schlafen:  dann  wer- 
den  sie  sich  gegenseitig  niemals  durch  bose  reden  veruneinigen,  bis  sie  der 
tod  trennt.'  Th.  writes  nvZt^le,  but  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  G64.  Tliese  lines  have  a 
ring  and  content  similar  to  those  in  the  formula  of  peacemaking  found  in 
primitive  laws  and  customs  of  Iceland.     Cf.  Origines  Islandicoe,  p.  318, 

•  Ye  two  shall  be  made  men  — 
At  one  and  in  agreement, 
At  feast  and  food, 
At  moot  and  meeting  of  the  people. 
At  church  soken,  and  in  the  king's  house.' 

Mti.,  failing  to  see  the  the  IjuSahdttr  strophe,  takes  178-183  "filr  schlecht 
umgemodelte  prosa."  He  has  a  similar  opinion  of  165-169.  Cf.  Holt., 
En(7.  St.,  XXXVII,  200,  who  would  change  to  tomaelde.  Cf.  B.-T., 
p.  1002  ;  Spr.,  II,  545. 

182.  The  meaning  of  tceft  is  uncertain.  Icel.  tajl  is  a  game,  used  of 
chess  or  draughts  or  of  dicing.  (Cf.  also  Germania,  XXIV.)  Hero,  the 
context  .seems  to  indicate  that  dicing  or  a  board  for  dicing  is  meant. 
Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  !t68.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  meaning  may  be  table 
where  drink  and  food  is  served. 

183.  They  forget  the  shaping  of  bitter  things.  On  gesceafte,  cf.  Wr., 
§391,  B.-T.,  p.  4:55.  On  horde,  T.,  B.-T.,  'on  board.'  It  is  Kkely,  I 
think,  that  the  gaming  board  is  referred  to,  —  at  the  board.  Either  mean- 
ing fits  equally  well  the  context. 

184.  Ettm., "  verbum  einettan  ignoro  ;  emtjan,  emtigean,  sajpe  leguntur." 
But  there  is  no  authority  for  this  statement.  I  suggest  either  of  two 
readings.  First,  the  idle  hand  of  the  dicer  is  at  leisivre  long  onough. 
Cf.  Deuteronomy  i,  0,  genuh  longe;  Spr.,  II,  284,  neah  =  satis  din.  For 
cemet,  cf.  Spr.  I,  57.  Second,  change  the  text  according  to  the  following 
explanation  :  cemet  comes  at  the  end  of  a  line,  -ian  was  carried  forward. 
ge  of  the  next  word,  as  not  unusual,  was  affixed  to  the  preceding  word  ; 
hence  iange.  Palieographically,  i  for  I  is  quite  possible  ;  a  later  scribe 
may  have  mistaken  the  letter,  particularly  since  Iange,  a  common  word, 
would  naturally  present  itself,  in  opposition  to  the  form  iange.  My  chief 
reasons  for  the  change  are  first  that  cemct  occurs  nowhere  else,  so  far  as 
I  know,  and  second,  that  a  is  uniformly  written  before  nasals  (in  the 
On.  Ex.),  and  Iange  would  have  been  longe.  (A  single  exception  to  the 
statement  in  regard  to  nasals  occurs  in  man,  67.)  Idle  hond  ^zmetian 
geneah  would  be  translated,  then,  It  satisfies  the  idle  hand  to  be  at 
leisure.    Th.  reads,  '  Idle  is  the  hand  (long  leisure  nigh)  of  the  gamester.' 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  145 

Sir  T.  Madden,  In  Eemarks  on  the  Ancient  Chessmen  found  in  tfu  Isle 
of  Lems,  Arch.,  24,  203  II.,  notes,  p,  282,  that  the  game  here  cited  ia 
allied  to  backgammon.     Ho,  wiili  "  Mr.  Price's"  help,  renders  182  fl:  — 

They  two  shall  sit  together 

At  tlie  table  game  sit. 

Whilst  their  anger  glides  away, 

Snail  forget  the  anxious  cares  of  life  ; 

They  shall  have  game  on  the  board, 

Wilb  idle  hand  unoccupied, 

Long  near  the  table-men, 

Shall  they  throw  the  dice  (tessellse) . 

It  is  noticeable  that  Sir  Frederick  i.isists  that  the  game  was  not  chess. 
yfr'ight^IIomcsofOthKr  Days,  New  York,  1871,  p.  232),  speaking  of  games 
says,  "The  aicst  popular  wa:^  that  of  tabuls).  This  game  was  in  use 
among  the  Romans,  and  was  in  all  probability  borrowed  from  them  by  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  among  whom  it  was  in  great  favor,  and  who  called  the 
game  t^efle  (^evidently  a  mere  adoption  of  the  Latin  name),  and  the  dice 
taefle-stanas.  The  former  evidently  represents  the  Latin  tesselae,  little 
cubes  ;  and  the  latter  seems  to  show  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  dice  were 
usually  made  of  stones.  At  a  later  period,  the  game  of  tables,  used  nearly 
always  in  the  plural,  is  continually  mentioned  along  with  chess,  as  the 
two  most  fashionable  and  arislooratic  games  in  use."  On  p.  2.14,  Wright 
referH  to  L.  L.  L.,  Act  V,  sc.  2,  "  when  ho  plays  at  tables,"  aud  to  The 
GuVs  Jloriibooke,  for  similar  use  of  the  term. 

185b.  teosehim  tceot-pcS,  throws  with  the  dice.  Cf.  Sh.,  pp.  18  and 
61.  Th.  reads,  '  but  with  tlie  dice  ho  throws  seldom  in  the  spacious  ship, 
unless  under  sail  he  runs.'  I  am  inclined  to  think  he  refers  to  ceole,  not 
•«,o  the  gamester.     Ettm.  and  Gr.  place  a  period  after  weorpeS. 

187.  Gr.  and  W.  print  tcerig  scealc.  Cf.  Spr.,  II,  403.  B.-T.  does 
not  refer  to  this  line  under  scealc.  —  wearnum,  freely. 

186  fi.  Str.  comments  to  the  following  effect:  Lazy  and  incapable  ser- 
vants are  not  to  be  used  for  ll>e  voyage  ;  the  lazy  runs  only  under  sail ; 
the  incapable,  when  reproached,  loses  his  craft  and  lets  the  helm  be 
ruined.  I  fail  to  get  any  sich  meaning,  but  read,  Weary  shall  he  (be, 
who)  rows  against  the  wind  ;  very  often  one  freely  blames  the  timid,  so 
that  he  loses  courage,  hss  oar  becomes  dry  on  board.  Th.  reads,  'Full 
oft  one  with  threats  urges  the  slothful,  .   .  .  draws  his  oar  on  board.' 

189.  Cunning  shall  with  thing  evil,  skill  with  things  fitting.  —  Lot  .  .  . 
list,  names  for  a.  corresponding  vice  and  virtue  ;  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  643  ;  Spr., 
II,  1'J0-1G4.  Koegel,  op.  cU.,  I,  76,  translates,  '  Betrug  muss  mit 
falschheit,  list  mit  schlauheit  verbunden  sein  ;  auf  diese  weise  wird  der 
Gtein  (im  bretspiel)  heimlich  beseitigt.' 

189-193.  LjASahi'iltr  strophe.  Tli.  thinks  want  of  context  and  allitera-, 
tion  shows  the  MS.  to  be  defective.  He  sees  a  gap  after  forstolen,  aud 
makes  no  translation  from  bacum  through  arujd.     Gr.  sees  a  slight  omis- 


146  GNOMIC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

gion  after  arSd.  With  these  views,  cf.  that  of  Str.  {Ztft.  f.  d.  ^.,  Xvill, 
215).  By  following  Str.'s  emendation  and  changing  drZd  to  arod,  one 
may  read  the  gnome  :  The  ready  man  is  always  prepared.  Of  the  entire 
strophe,  Sir.  says  :  "der  sinn  des  spruches  Lst  folgeuder :  schlechte  betrll- 
gen,  tiichtige  zeigen  schlauheit.  dadu'-ch  (durch  betrug  oder  list)  wird 
der  stein  (im  brettspielc)  unvermerkl  hinweggeaommen.  oft  zerzankea 
sie  (die  lysice)  sich  mit  worlen,  bevor  sie  aus  einander  gehen,  wahrend  der 
schlagfertige  {arod  vgl.  altn.  ^rr)  iiberall  geriistet  ist  (den  schaden  wett 
zu  machen  sucht  oder  weis.s)."  Line  193,  he  adds,  is  an  example  of 
skothendinj,  or  half-rhyme :  gea  r  :  a  .  .  .  a  ■  r  od.  Cf.  Koegel,  op. 
cit.,  I,  75.  B.-T.,  supp.  p.  45,  suggests,  doubtfully,  'resolute'  for  dncd, 
Cf.  Wand.,  Wyrd  buS  ful  drxd,  and  Beo.  (an-ricd),  1530,  1570,  where 
the  meaning  seems  toj  be  '  determined,  firm '  (kiihn,  mutig,  Schucking 
glosses).  193,  then,  may  be.  The  courageous  is  at  all  times  prepared. 
Koegel  reads,  geara  is  hiccer  ahred,  and  translates,  'tief  ists  irgendwo 
erregt.'  lie  notes,  "Der  sinn  der  zeile  kanu  nur  sein  :  der  innere  zonx 
kommt  zum  ausbruch,  die  innere  erregung  macht  sich  in  worten  luft." 
This  rendering  throws  too  much  strain  on  191.  The  general  meaning  is 
probably  this:  Cunning  must  meet  clieating,  by  which  the  dice  may  be 
stolen :  players  often  dispute  before  they  turn  their  backs  on  one  another  ; 
the  courageous  man  will  be  ready  (in  case  of  a  wrangle). 

194.  This  line  marks  the  beginning  of  a  Christian  passage,  one  that  is 
corrupt  and  difficult  to  convert  into  a  form  approacliing  that  tir:,t  written 
down.  19l-19Sa  is  comparatively  simple  and  reads,  HostUity  has  been 
among  mankind  since  the  earth  first  swallowed  Abel's  blood  ;  it  was  no 
one  day's  hate,  from  which  strife-bringing  drops  widely  sprang,  great 
crime  to  man,  to  many  people  hale-mixed  hate. 

195.  andcege,  cf.  Beo.  11,  1107,  1935,  and  Sedgefield's  ed.,  p.  164. 
The  meaning  may  be  '  open.'  —  jhoh,  in  197,  I  change  to  ??ia7t ;  otherwise, 
I  make  nothing  of  197or. 

198.  Here  the  difficulty  becomes  greater.  "What  does  />oiie  refei-  to  ? 
Cain  or  Abel  ?  If  the  latter,  then  iierede  may  be  for  ferede  or  generede, 
and  the  meaning  is,  whom  ('that  is,  Abel)  death  took  away. 

209.  The  difficulty  here  lies  in  a/jolwarum,  for  which  B.-T.  ctfers 
'citizens.'  But  'eternal  hate  injured  men,  so  citizeus'  is  not  r.  convinc- 
ing rendering.  Str.  would  substitute  geiorcec  for  nerede  (aiter  the  passage 
in  Beo.),  then  he  would  change  apolwaruv-  to  aSom  sicarian,  reading  : 
'den  mord  rachte  —  kund  war  es  seither  weithin — dass  ewiger  hass  die 
menschea  schiidigte,  wie  auch  eidam  und  schwiiher  der  waff  en  getose 
vollfiihrten  iiber  die  erde.'  Str.  has  a  good  deal  to  say  about  the  Cain- 
Abel  reference  with  respect  to  its  bearing  on  the  Oswald-Penda  wars.  I 
doubt  any  historical  allusion. 

195.    hlbde,  is.  after  swelgan.     Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  947. 

201.   drtogan  gewin,  fight. 

203-206  show  reversion  to  gnomic  utterance. 

204.    W.  writer  and  in  italics  to  indicate  the  MS.  sign  for  this  word; 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  147 

204  shows  error  in  this  respect  where  he  does  not  italicize.  In  every 
Instance  the  MS.  has  •). 

205iu  Heart  for  the  brave  man  =  The  brave  man  must  hare  courage. 

206.  Th.  reads  •  for  the  base  in  soul.'  I  read  (/>oes  heanan  hyge),  for 
the  soul  of  the  base  (shall  be  thought)  a  most  limited  treasure.  Cf .  Brooke, 
'  And  the  smallest  of  hoards  for  the  coward  in  soul.' 


Cotton  Gnomes 

1.  Note  ceastra  vr..  Saxon  hurh.  Stone  masonry  meant  something 
mysterious  to  the  Germans,  wbo  spoke  of  it  as  "  burg  of  the  giants," 
"the  giants'  ancient  work."  The  use  of  stone,  foreign  to  the  north  of 
Europe,  spread  from  the  southeast  corner  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Cf.  Gummere,  Gennanic  Origins,  p.  91,  and  see  above,  p.  107.  — gesyne, 
visible.  F.,  T.,  translate  '  seen,'  a  word  which  should  be  reserved  for  the 
pp.  of  geceon. 

2.  enta.  B.-T.,  ent,  'a  giant,  gigas.'  orSanc  enta  gexceorc,  cunning 
work  of  giants.  Cf.  Beo.  2718.  Cf.  Kr.,  An.,  p.  138.  T.  overfreely 
translates,  'The  work  of  the  mlud  of  giants,'  which  the  case  of  orSanc 
forbids.     Cf.  Gen.  vi,  4,  '  There  were  giants  on  the  earth  in  those  days.' 

8a.   Cf.  liuin,  l^icr.^tlic  is  />ces  icealstdn. 

3b.    sioiftHst,  the  rarer  form.     Cf.  Wr.,  §  444. 

4.  punar,  syndan,  hludast.  rarer  forms.  —  myccle,  cf,  Wr.,  §  2G0.  Ettm. 
mycle,  but  already  the  older  forn*  had  given  place  to  myccle. 

5.  Wyrd.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  1287,  for  various  significations  of  this  word; 
cf.  also  Kr.,  An.,  6136  and  note.  An  indication  of  heathen  origin;  the 
feeling  seems  to  be  more  pereonal  than,  say,  in  Gen.  2355  where  Wyrd  is 
lather  a  'cold  abstraction.'  My  punct.  of  56-8a  is  somewhat  clearer, 
1  think,  than  that  suggested  by  .onner  Edd. 

6.  lencten,  spring,  confined  to  West  Teutonic  languages,  has  acquired 
an  ecclesiastical  meaning  peculiar  to  England.  In  other  Teutonic  languages, 
the  only  sense  is  '  spring,'  says  the  NED.,  W-,  p.  201.  Cf.  OHG.  lengizin 
(shortened  lenzin).  The  word  may  possibly  have  reference  to  the  length- 
ening of  days  as  cha-ucterizing  spring.  Cf.  lent-lilies,  daffodils,  and 
'Lenten  ys  come  w'>  loue  to  toune.' — hr'imigost,  cf.  Hen.,  35,  Arljue 
gehyrsted  .  .  .  Martius,  and  noies  on  spring  in  JEG.  Ph.,  V,  446  (Hans- 
com,  op.  cit.) 

7.  Summer  is  most  sun-beautiful,  i.e.,  beautiful  from  sun-shine.  Cf. 
B.-T.  p.  937.  But  IL,  'cBstivus  sol  est  formosi'<simus,'  and  F.,  T.,  'Sum- 
mer sun  is  most  beautiful.'  Note  spelling  sumclitegost  and  (next  line) 
hreSeadegost.  For  example  in  Alfred's  prose  of  similar  forms,  cf .  Cos.,  §  43. 

8.  The  poet,  having  spoken  of  winter,  spring,  and  summer,  completes 
the  round  of  the  Fcasons  :  hcerfest  is  figurative  for  autumn.  The  word  is 
confined  to  QUO.  and  Dutch,  and  was  established  after  Tacitus.  Cf. 
Schrader,  op.  cit.,  p.  303.  I  translate,  Autumn  is  most  glorious.  T's  '  Fierce 


148  GNOnC   POETRY   IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

harvest  is  the  happiest'   is  nonsense.     H.,    'tempestiyas    autumnoa'; 
F.,  '  Harvest  is  most  blessed.' 

9.  MS.  geres  may  hti  Kentish  or  Anglian  or  late  West^Saxon.  Cf.  V7r., 
§  124,  note.  In  Oros.  occur  both  gear  and  ger;  in  Chr.  simply  gear. 
Cf.  Cos.,  §  61.  Cf.  Hanscom,  op.  cit.,  p.  441.  With  6-9  cf.  Met.  11 
6&-fil,  for  similar  relation  of  God  to  wind  and  change  of  seasons. 

10.  Truth  is  most  treacherous.  So  the  gnome  must  read  according  to 
MS.  sicicolost,  which,  as  Ea.  comments,  has  a  '  strangely  Machiavellian 
sound.'  According  to  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  truthfulness  with  the 
Norsemen  did  not  preclude  everything  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  as 
deceit ;  they  made  use  in  a  treaty  of  ambiguous  expressions.  Cf.  op.  ci'., 
409-410.  But  emendation  in  favor  of  simpler  meaning  is  preferable.  Sw. 
proposes  sicutulost,  a  change  whereby  the  gnome  falls  readily  into  line 
with  the  others.  But  why  not  sioitolost  f  Palffiographically  this  form  is 
quite  possible,  c  and  (  often  being  mistaken  for  each  other.  I  read  it  into 
the  text  and  translate.  Truth  is  most  clear,  or  evident.  Cf.  The  Instruc- 
tions of  King  Cormac  Mac  Airt,  p.  22,  1.  36,  'Everything  true  is  sweet.' 
H.,  'verus  facilliine  decipitur,'  with  which  cf.  Spr.,  II,  511  :  '  sich  leicht 
entziehend,  leicht  entgehend  ? '  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  954,  « occasioning  offence  ? ' 
T.,   'Truth  is  most  deserving.' 

11-12.  The  old  most  wise,  old  in  bygone  years,  who  ear  ier  experienced 
many  things.  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  854,  for  fyrngearum ;  Spr.,  I,  303.  For 
grhidcS,  cf.  An.,  1702,  where  the  idea  seems  to  be  similar.  With  the 
thought,  cf.  W.-vamql,  'stanza  133,  and  Hampesmol,  27.  (Sea  introd., 
p.  27.)  Gummere  notes  that  the  very  old  were  thrust  away  to  die  ;  but 
healthy  old  age  and  the  wisdom  of  sagacious  counsel  were  venerated. — 
Germanic  Origins,  p.  205. 

13.  xomidrum,  Spr.,  II,  752,  ^  mirabiUter.^ — scrWat :  cf.  1.  40,  also 
Beo.  103,  051,  etc. 

14.  sceolan  for  sceolon.  Cf.  note,  1.  4.  With  the  idea,  cf.  Beo.  20 
ff.  (See  introd.,  p.  30.)  Cf.  also  Gummere,  OEE.,  p.  23,  substituting 
Cotton  for  Exeter.     Cf.  Jleliand,  1018  ff. 

16a.  I  read  a  period  after  eorle,  Courage  oughl  to  be  in  a  man.  Cf. 
ON.  proverb,  OSlingr  sk'jldi  einkar-raoskar.  H.,  '  virtus  in  duce,  et 
gladius  ciun  galea,  bellum  tolerabunt.'  So,  F.,  T.,  translating,  see  in  hilde 
geb'idan  a  complement  to  each  half  line  of  16. 

16b.  MS.  hellme,  misspelling  for  helme.  Cf.  Beo.  2259,  hilde  gehdd. 
Tiepresentations  of  ancient  chessmen  found  in  the  isle  of  Lewis  (op.  cit. 
m  Arch.  XXIV,  203  ff.)  show  the  sword  held  in  the  right  hand  resting 
against  the  helmet  in  the  left. 

17.  The  ha..k  shall  on  (or,  sit  on)  the  glove  of  the  falconer,  the  wild 
one  dwell ;  or,  the  hawk,  though  wild,  shall  accustom  him.self  to  the 
glove.  Cf.  Fates  of  Men,  85,  sum  scenl  wildne  fxigel  lolonce  ateniian,  etc. 
—  glofe,  II.  translates  (glofe),  'clivo'  ;  B.-T.,  p  481,  '  a  cliff'  ;  Spr.,  II, 
610,  ^rupes  f  ;  Brooke,  'cliff'.' 

19.   By  following  the  MS.  one  may  read.  The  eagle  in  the  haw.     H. 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  149 

translates,  '  aquila  in  campo,'  so  F.,  T.,  »  eagle  in  field.'  In  Kent,  a  haw 
is  a  yard  or  enclosure.  But  by  changing  earn  to  earm  and  making  one 
word  of  an  +  haga  (emendation  of  Ettra.,  followed  by  Gr,,  Sw.,  W.) 
the  passage  becomes  aligned  with  the  preceding  and  the  following  gnomes. 
The  miserable  recluse,  i.e.  the  wolf.  Cf.  Beo.  2309,  earm  dnhaga,  and 
Wand.   1.     Cf.  also  B.-T.,  sapp.  p.  42. 

20a.   tuSmcegeties  oocars  only  here. 

20b.   til,  the  good  man.     H.  '  bonus  civis.' 

21.  domes  toyrcean,  do  justice,  win  glory  or  renown.  Cf.  Beo.  1888- 
13P9.  (See  introd.  p.  38.)  Cf.  also  i?eo.  1492,  dom  geteyrce.  For  use 
of  the  gen.  with  xcyrcan,  cf.  Sh.,  p.  63. 

23a.  steap  and  geap,  cf.  Euin,  11,  steap  geap  ;  Oen.,2656,fyr  steapes 
and  geapes. 

23b-24a.  The  stream  shall  in  the  waves  mingle  with  seaflood.  H., 
♦Fluvius  exundans  faciei  diluvium.'  See  footnote,  and  cf.  B.-T.,  p.  676 
(mecgan)  and  p.  G78  (mengan).  Cf.  Biisband'a  Message,  42,  mengan 
mereslreamas.  The  passage,  though  obscure,  seems  to  refer  to  a  river 
which  flows  into  the  sea. 

24b-25a.  The  mast  shall  on  the  ship,  the  sail-yard,  rest.  I  make 
segelgyrd  synonymous  with  mcest.  H.,  '  Malus  in  navigio  antennas  sustine- 
bit.'  B.-T  ,  p.  864,  '  The  mast  shall  be  fixed  in  a  boat  and  the  yard  hang 
from  it.'     Spr.,  II   424,  glosses  segelgyrd  as  a  ptc,  '  segelgiirtet.' 

25b-26a.  Literally,  sword  shall  in  bosom,  on  bosom,  or  in  the  lap. 
Tupper  thinks  it  probable  that  some  rite  of  the  comitatus  may  here  be  re- 
ferred to  as  in  Gn.  E.c.  68-71.  He  cites  Beo.  2195  and  1143.  2195,  /><jet 
he  on  Blowulfes  bearm  dlegde,  I  think  simply  means  that  Hygelac  laid 
the  sword,  as  a  gift,  in  Beowulf's  lap.  This  is  the  view  also  of  R.  W. 
Chambers,  "  On  his  paru,  Hygelac  gives  Beowulf  feudal  domains,  placing, 
as  he  does  so,  in  Beowulf's  bosom  the  sword  of  their  common  grandfather 
Hrethel."  Op.  cit.,  p.  25.  Beo.  1143  is  an  obscure  passage  which  has 
been  translated  variously  Cf.  Schiicking,  op.  cit.,  p.  Ill,  and  MLN., 
XXV,  114.  The  old  mode  of  holding  the  sword,  assigned  to  royal  per- 
sonages, was  across  the  knees  and  with  both  hands.  In  Grimmesm{>l, 
King  Geirrod  sits  "  ok  hafH  sverb  um  kn6  ok  brugpit  til  mibs."  Cf.  also 
illustrations  in  Wright's  Homes,  and  in  Sir  F.  Madden's  article,  loc.  cit.. 
Arch.  XXIV.  On  the  whole,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  gnome 
refers  to  this  custom.     Read,  the  sword  shall  rest  in  the  lap. 

26b.  A  dragon  shall  dwell  in  a  cavern,  or  on  a  mound.  Cf.  Beo.  2212- 
2213.     For  information  about  dragons,  cf.  Brand!,  op.  cit.,  p.  990. 

29b-30.    Cf.  On.  Ex.  177  and  see  above,  p.  96. 

30b.  Water  from  the  hill  shall  travel,  flood-gray.  H.,  '  Aqua  de  monti- 
bus  irrucns  inunUatiouem  iuterm  faciei.'  F.,  T.,  '  Water  will  from  the 
hill  bring  down  the  g>"ay  earth.'  — fodgroig  occm-s  only  here,  but  cf.Jlint- 
grcegne,  Bid.  4-10.  Cf.  Mead,  op.  cit.,  p.  189  ff.  B.-T.  gives  the  com- 
pound/o/i^ricgr,  and  translates  '  ?^arth -colored  water  shall  proceed  from  a 
hill.'     <sy/r.,  I.,  310,  foldgrajg,  '  erdgrau.' 


150  GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 

32b-SSa.   Cf.  Gn.  Ex.  160. 

83b.  ipudu  =  tree.     H., 'Sylvae  In  terns  fsecundse  florebunt.* 

34a.  blbvian,  to  bloom,  survives  only  in  dialect  in  Mn.  E.  With  38!>- 
S4a,  cf.  Gn.  Ex.  25J>-26a. 

35.  Mead  notes  that  the  favorite  color  in  AS.  poetry  is  green  and  that 
singularly  enough  the  examples  are  found  almost  wholly  in  religious 
poems.    Cf.  Guth.  203,  grene  beorgas. 

36b-S7a.  Cf.  Beo.  725,  recedes  mu9an.  No  meaningless  figure.  Of. 
Gummere,  Germanic  Origins,  p.  105. 

37.  rand.    Cf.  Jiid.,  Tupper,  p.  80,  and  cf.  Wright,  Homes,  p.  86. 

38b-39a.    Cf.  Fates  of  2Ien,  23. 

39b-40a.  The  salmon  shall  in  the  sea  glide  with  rapid  movement.  H., 
•Salmo  et  raia  in  gurgitibus  hinc  illinc  vagabuntur.'  T.,  .  .  .  '  will  roll 
with  the  skate.'  F.,  'with  shooting  wander.'  Cf.  B.-T.,  p.  627,  leax, 
and  p.  839,  scot,  which  is  glossed  '  shot,'  and  under  which  this  line  ia 
quoted.  Spr.,  II,  407,  '  motus  rapidu-s.'  Tupper  suggest**  the  possibility 
that  sceote  may  be  for  sceole  and  cites  A  Journey  Spell,  24  (Grendon,  p. 
178). 

40.  i  iu  scrlSan  in  later  hand  above  the  line. 

41.  Cf.  ^let.  20'!. 

42a.  Cf.  Chr.  872,  />eof  />ristlice,  pe  on  p'jatre  fdreS.  — pystrum,  cf . 
footnote,  and  B.-T.,  p.  1052. 

42b.  /»jrs,  a  demon  in  ON.  mythology,  a  relic,  as  are  eiAr:  and  \oyrd  of 
early  superstition  in  England.  II.,  '  latro,'  F.,  'spectre,'  Icel. /urs,  'a 
giant';  OHG,,  durs,  '  d.^emonium '  ;  lit.,  'the  thirsty  one.'  Cf.  B.-T., 
p.  lOBt).  —  "  Man  mag  an  Grendel,  den  aus  der  methalle  verbannten, 
denken."     Brandi,  op.  cit.,  p.  OGO. 

43b  ff.  A  woman  shall  by  secret  craft  seek  her  lover,  if  she  doea 
not  wish  publicly  to  be  sought  in  marriage.  Cf.  Gn.  Ex.  82-93,  and 
see  above,  p.  91  ff.  "  Golden  arm  rings  were  the  aristocratic  present," 
Germanic  Origins,  p.  107.  MaiTiage  by  purchase  appears  in  its  crudest 
form  in  Ivent,  where  wives  would  seem  to  have  been  bought  much  in  the 
same  way  a-s  slaves  or  cattle.  Cf.  Chadwick,  Origiii  of  the  English 
Xation,  p.  324.  Such  a  custom  also  seems  to  have  prevailed  in  Wessex. 
If  the  lines  are  to  be  translated  as  above,  a  late  origin  is  indicated  :  being 
bought  was  a  reproach.  But  in  the  Gn.  Ex.,  ge/^eon  was  used  in  a  good 
sense  and  the  purchase  was  honorable  enough,  something  to  be  desired, 
according  to  old  Germanic  custom.  By  a  slight  emendation  iu  tib,  the 
thought  becomes  similar  to  that  in  Gn.  Ex  :  nelle  may  be  eiTor  for  icille. 
The  meaning  then  becomes,  The  woman  shM  by  secret  craft  seek  her 
friend,  if  she  would  thrive  among  the  people,  that  she  muy  be  bought 
■nith  rings.  dyrne  Sw.  thinks  an  adv.  periphrasis,  '  secretly,  clan- 
destinely.'     Cf.  M(i.,  p.  10  ;  he  regards  43J>-45a  as  prose. 

45b.  The  sea  shall  foam  (welter)  with  salt.  II.,  'sale  festuabit.'  Sw. 
thinks  'salt,'  adj.,  better. 

46.    Air  and  water  (cloud  and  flood)  shall  flow  about  each  of  all  lands, 


NOTES   ON   GNOMIC   VERSES  151 

mountain  (mouiitainoas)  atroams.  On  Jlrgenstream,  see  Lawrence's 
Kaunted  Mere  in  Beoiculf,  PMLA.,  ns.  XX,  2,  212.  The  chief  point  t'^ 
be  observed  here  is  t)iat  the  water  is  not  salt.  Cf.  Met.  20"*^  for  the 
same  idea.  H.,  *  sei-ei  imbrcs,  diluvia  et  transgreasi  fluvii  inondabunt 
omnes  terras,'  but  prints  ealra  land. 

48.  tungol,  any  heavenly  body  ;  here  probably  the  sun. 

49.  meotud.  Vilmar  thinks  this  word  had  its  origin  in  heathendom, 
but  was  retained  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity  and  applied  to  the 
Supreme  Being.  Cf.  C.  C.  Ferrell,  Teutonic  Antiquities  in  the  AS. 
Genesis,  Leipzig,  1893,  p.  4. 

60.    geogot!,  later  fo.-m  ;  cf.  1.  49,  where  meotud,  older  form,  appears. 

62-53.  fyrd  wiS  fyrde,  .IdtS  wiS  ld/>e,  examples  of  "  grammatischer 
reim." 

64a.  synne  sUelan.  B.-T.,  'charge  with  crime.'  H.,  'semper  se  ob- 
flrmahuut.'  F.,  '  They  shall  always  steal  on  each  other.'  T.,  '  Sin  will 
steal  on.'  Sw.,  '  Institute  injury  or  hostility.'  Kock,  Atigl.  XXVII,  229, 
thinks  this  passage,  Oen.  1351-1352,  and  the  two  in  Beo.,  1S39-1344, 
2485-2487,  where  the  verb  {ge)st&lan  is  employed,  have  been  misunder- 
stood, that  the  idea  of  accusing  or  upbraiding  has  developed  into  that  of 
avenging.  Cf.  also  Klaeber,  M.  Ph.,  Ill,  201.  Kock  disagrees  with  Sw., 
on  ihe  basis  that  syn.ie  means  an  infringement  of  divine  or  human  law, 
wrong-doing ;  it  is  no:,  used  of  hostility  in  general,  or  looked  on  as  law- 
ful ;  it  is  used  of  wrongful  hostility,  or  invasion,  injury.  The  clause 
means  call  to  account  for  perjury,  avenge  (wrongful)  hostility.  Cf.  also 
Beo.,  Schiicking,  p.  273.  I  hardly  see  that  wrongful  here  applies  ;  for  I 
take  it  that  the  idea  refers  to  the  group  collectively  (50-53)  ;  hence, 
simply,  avenge  hostility. 

64b.  A  comment  on  palaoj^Taphy  here  lets  one  into  the  workings  of  the 
scribe's  mind.  A  hole  in  the  MS.  interfered  with  a  long  stemmed  minis- 
cule  h,  in  the  word  hycgean ;  hence,  the  writer  made  a  small  squat  cap- 
ital H. 

65b.  wearh  hangian.  The  outlaw  shall  hang,  or  be  hanged  ;  he  shall 
fairly  pay  the  penalty  for  that  he  before  did,  crime  to  mankind,  loearA, 
'  villain,'  '  outlaw,'  not  '  teufel,'  according  to  Str.  Beginning  with  646, 
H.,  'In  mundanis  rebus  prudens  semper  conari  debet,  ut  exlex  sus- 
pendatur,  et  ut  ei  bene  rependantur  injuriie  quas  humano  generi  prius 
fecerat.'  F.,  '  Ever  shall  the  prudent  strive  about  this  world's  labor  to 
hang  the  thief  ;  and  compensatj  the  more  honest  for  the  crime  committed 
against  mankind.'  W.  places  only  a  comma  after  gexoinn.  My  reading 
seems  to  offer  tl)e  advantage  of  separating  two  sententious  sayings  which 
other  Edd.  have  joined. 

67-61.  Mil.  thinks  these  lines  are  prose,  "  wenigstens,  58,  59,  denn  die 
alliteration  f;Ult  in  58  auf  sceal  und  in  zweiten  fasso  auf  sySSan,  wiihrend 
sie  in  59a  fehlt,"  op.  cit.,  p.  11. 

69-60.  .  .  .  who  for  God  depart  after  the  day  of  death  ;  they  await,  etc. 
Edd.,  '  who  for  God  depart.'     After  their  death-day  they  await,   etc. 


152  GNO^^c  poetry  in  anglo-saxon 

Cf.  Beo.  440,  ff .  —  tJjer  gelyfan  sceal, 

Dryhtnea  dOme  86  )>e  kine  deaU  nimetJ. 

60.    Sw.  thinks  bidan,  inf.,  better. 

62.    dlgol  and  dyrne,  stock  phrase.    Cf.  Chr.  640,  El.  1092,  etc. 

65-66  and  the  beginning  of  the  Chronicle  are  shown  in  facsimile  by 
Ea.,  op.  p.  xxxvi,  op.  cit. 

Note  on  Metrics 

Since  Mli.  makes  a  complete  analysis  of  meter,  alliteration,  anl  rhyme 
(op.  cit.,  pp.  3fM9),  since  Kaluza  tabulates  all  expanded  linei  according 
to  type  {Eng.  St.,  XXI  ;  cf.  p.  337,  Die  Schwellverse  in  der  Altenglischen 
Dichtung,  and  esp.  pp.  356-370),  and  Theodor  Schmitz  works  out  the 
percentages  of  such  lines  {Angl.  XXXIII  ;  cf.  pp.  1-76,  172-218.  Vie 
Se'^h!<takter  in  der  Altenglischen  Dichtung,  and  esp.  pp.  216-217),  it 
seems  unnecessary  to  recapitulate  here  in  detail.  Moreover,  I  have 
already  called  attention  to  Ij6l5ah&ttr  forms.  It  may  be  worth  while 
noting,  however,  that  the  gnome.s  show  altogether  27.6%  expanded  lines  ; 
On.  C.  contain  12%,  Gn.  Ex.,  33%. 


GLOSSARY 


The  order  is  alphabetic :  the  Ugatura  to  is  treated  aa  equiralent  in  rank  to 
a ;  '.nitial  "5  follows  t.  Arabic  numerals  indicate  the  classes  of  ablaut  verbs 
according  to  Slevers'  classification;  Wi,  otc,  the  classes  of  the  weak  verbs; 
R  the  reduplicating,  PP  the  preterit-present  verbs.  Mood  and  tense  are  in- 
dicated only  when  other  than  indicative  presetit.  The  citations  are  meant  to 
b9  complete.    References  are  to  the  Exeter  Gnomes. unless  C.  is  prefijced. 


a,  adv.,  always:  20,  104,  lb2,  178, 
_206,  C.  64. 

Abel,  pr. n.,  Abel:  g3.  Abeles  195. 
abrSoSan,  2,  degenerate,  deterio- 
rate :  3  sg.  abr6o)>e'5  66. 
ac,  conj.,  but:  11,  152. 
Scwelan,  4,  die,  perish  :  opt.  8  sg. 

acwele  114. 
Scy)7an,  Wi,  nhow,  confirr,i:  inf. 

49. 
Sdl,  fn.,  disease,  sickness:  ns.  10, 

31,  118. 
eefter,  prep.  w.  dat.,  after:  C.  60. 
&gan,  PP,  own,  possess :  pret  3  sg. 

ahte  175. 
figen,  adj.,  own,  proper:  nsm.  98. 
ffighwcer,  adv.,  evei-ywhere:  89. 
ieht,  f .,  goods,  property :  ap.  ahte 

157. 
ahycgan,  W3,  devise,  invent :  pret. 

3  pi.  iihogodan  202. 
ahyrdan,     Vv'^i,    harden,    temper: 

pret.  3  pi.  ahyrdon  202. 
aiaidan,  Wj,  lead,  lead  out:  opt. 

3  sg.  alSde  48. 
5elc,  pron.,  each,  every :  nsm.  169. 
eelde,  ra.,  n:en :   dp.  seldum  197, 

200. 
Sled,  ra.,  fire  :  as.  80. 


eelmihtlg,  adj.,  almighty :  nsm.  17; 
asm.  aelmihtigne  10. 

alw&lda,  m.,  All-ruler,  God : 
ns.  133. 

aiyfan,  Wi,  permit,  grant :  pp.  Sly- 
fed  110. 

aemetan,  semetian,  ?  be  idle, 
vacant :  inf.  184. 

an,  num.,  1.  one,  certain  one: 
nsm.  75 ;  gsm.  ines  175. — 2.  alone  : 
nsm.  ana  29,  42, 173,  C.  43,  C.  67, 
C.  62. 

and,  conj.,  and  (in  the  MS.  all 
occurrences  are  represented  by 
the  abbreviation)  :  3,  6, 18,  24,  28, 
46, 48, 58, 86, 88, 92, 97, 98, 99, 110, 
121,  137,  142,  143o,  167,  160,  162, 
103,  167,  179,  202,  204,  206  ; 
C.  11,  C.  15,  C.  23,  C.  30,  C.  46, 
C.  48,  C.  69,  C.  62. 

andaege,  adj.,  lasting  a  day?  nsm. 
195. 

ange,  adj.,  troubled,  sorrowful: 
nsn.  onge  42.     (See  notes.) 

anbaga,  m.,  solitary  one :  ns.  C.  19. 

anw^eald,  m.,  empire,  rule,  power: 
gs.  ariwealces  69. 

5t,  f.,  oar:  ns.  188. 

Sr,  adj.,  early:  nsf.  31. 

Sr,  adv.,  before,  formerly,  earlier: 
21,  49,   114,   181,  C.   12,  C.  66. 


153 


154 


GNOMIC  POETRY  IN  ANQLO-SaXON 


Bup.  serest,  firtt,  at  first :  4,  83, 

90. 
8Br,  conj.,  before:  192. 
5rs5d,  adj.,  resolute,   courageous: 

193. 
arSran,  "Wj,  uplift,  raise  up :  pret 

3  sg.  irairde  10. 
fireccan,    Wi,   explain,  expound: 

inf.  141. 
Srisan,  1,  arise,  come  to  be:  3  6g. 

arise  "5  161. 
Sr  )3on,  conj.,  before:  111. 
Sspringan,    3,    spring    out,    lack, 

fail :  3  sg.  aspringe"S  36. 
set,  prep.  w.  dat.,  a<,  in :   5,  64, 

137. 
atemian,  Wj,  tame,  s«6(!we ;  pp. 

asm.  atemedne  47. 
Stgeofa,  m.,  food-giver,  provider : 

ns.  98. 
getremnod,   adj.,   venom-minded: 

nsra.  163. 
setsomne,  adv.,  at  once,  together: 

93.  179,  C.  31. 
agjjeling,  m.,  1.  nobleman,  prince : 

as.  C.  14.  —  2.  people  (in  a  good 

sense)  :  gp.  pc>elinga  90. 
aSolware,  pi.  m.,  citizens  (but  see 

Doles)  :  dp.  aMwarum  200. 
Swegan,  5,  take  or  carry  away : 

pp.  awegen  21. 

B 

baec,  n.,  back:  dp.  bacum  192. 
beedan,    Wi,    compel,    constrain, 

solicit :  3  sg  bSdeS  100. 
be,  prep.   w.   dat.,   about,   beside, 

by:  113. 
beada,  f.,  battle,  war:  as.  bead  we 

62  ;  ds.  beaduwe  C.  16. 
bSag,   m.,   ring,  bracelet,  collar: 

lis.  131  ;  dp.  beagum  83,  C.  46 ; 

ap.  bfagas  C.  29. 
b5ahgifu,  f.,  distribution  of  rings, 

gifts:  ds.  bCahgife  C.  15. 


beeiloblonden,    pp.,    bale-mixed^ 

pernicious :  nam.  198. 
bealolSaa,  adj.,  innocent:  Dsf.  39. 
bSam,  m.,  tree :  ns.  25,  169. 
bearm,  m.,  bosom,  lap :  da.  bearme 

C.  25. 
beam,  n.,  child,  offspring:  as.  o'.* 

ap.  25. 
beam,    m.,    grove :   da.    bearowe 

C.  18. 
bebeodan,    2,   command,*    3    Bg. 

bebSad  C.  49. 
befeolan,     3,     commit,    ddiver: 

inf.  116. 
begen,  adj.,  both:  npji.  175,  177  ; 

npn.  bu  62,  83 ;  i^pmf.  bega  17  ; 

dpmf.  bSm  93,  154. 
behligan,     1,   dishonor,    defame: 

3  sg.  bilih«  65,  bebli-5  101. 
behofian,  Wj,  have  need  of,  need, 

require :  3  sg.  behofa?  45. 
beodan,  2,  offer :  3  sg.  bCode'S  60. 
beon,  see  wesan. 
beorgan,  3,  save,  protect:    3  pi. 

beorga-5  36. 
beorh,  m.,  hill :  ns.  C.  34 
beorhte,  adv.,  brightly :  C.  49. 
bera,    m.,   bear:  ns.    C.  29;    as. 

beran  177. 
betera,  betre,  adj.,  better  (cr.rap. 

of  bet,  good)  :  nsn.  betre  175. 
bew^indan,  3,  encircle,  surround: 

3  sg.  bewindelS  150. 
bewltian,  Wj,  observe :  inf.  40. 
bl,  prep.  w.  dat.,  by,  about:  146 

(see  be), 
bidan,  1,  toait,  rest:  3  pi.  bIdatJ 

C.  60  ;  inf.  08. 
bilihS,  see  behligan. 
bilwit,    adj.,   merciful,  mild:  gp. 

bilwitra  101. 
bindan,  3,  bind:  pp. gebunden  88, 

94. 
blsed,    f.,  flower,    blossom :    dp. 

blujdum  C.  34. 
blind,  adj.,  blind:  nms.  89. 


GLOSSARY 


155 


bll^e,  eA].,  joyful,  j^iad,  cheerful: 
►  nsf.  89. 

blod,  n.,  blood:  is.  bl5de  195. 
blo'wan,  R,  bloom,  blossom :  inf. 

C.  34. 
boc,  f.,  book:  np.  bee  131. 
bog,  m.,  shoulder  (hence,  back)  : 

ds.  bOge  03. 
boga,  m.,  bovs :  ns.  164. 
bcldagend,  m.,  house-owner :  dp. 

boldagendura  93. 
bord,  n.,  1.  board,  shield:  us.  95. 

—  2.  deck  of  shij)  (lience,  ship): 

ds.bordel83,  188. 
borde,  f .,  table,  embroidery  board  f 

ds.  bordan  04. 
brSdan,  Wt,  grow,  raise  up,  spread 

out:  inf.  100. 
brSost,  n.,  breast,  heart,  mind :  as. 

101  ;  dp.  breostum  123. 
brim,  n.,  sea,  surf:  ns.  C.  45. 
bringan,  Wi,  bring :  3  sg.  bringetS 

C.  8. 
broSor,  m.,  brother:  as.  brOl>or  175, 

198. 
brycgian,     W2,      bridge,     bridge 

over :  inf.  73. 
bryd,  f.,  bride:  ds.  bryde  iSl. 
bu,  see  b§ger„ 

bune,  f.,  cup :  dp.  bCnum  83. 
bycgan,  Wj,  buy,  procwe:  8  eg. 

bygeb  111. 
byldan,    Wj,    encourage,   exhort: 
inf.  C.  15. 


Cain,  pr.  n.,  Cain:  as.  199. 
calcrond,  adj.,  shoed  f  round  of 

hoof  f :  gam.  calcrondes  143. 
ceald,  adj.,  cold:  nam.  C.  G  ;  sup. 

cealdost  nam.  C.  5. 
cSap,  m. .  cattle,  qoods :  ds.  ceape 

82;  as.  108. 
oeaster,  f.,  city,  ccstle,  town:  np. 

ceaatra  C.  1.         .-   ■. 


cempa,  m.,  toldier:  da.  oempan 

130. 
c6ne,  adj.,   bold:    dsm.  or  dpm. 

cenum  01,  205  ;  npm.  cene  59. 
cennan,  Wt,  beget,   create,  bring 

forth :  inf.  24,  C.  28. 
c6ol,  m.,  keel,  ship:  ns.  97  ;  ds. 

ceole  180,  C.  24. 
ceorl,  m.,  man,  husband:  ns.  97. 
cildgeong,  adj.,  young  as  a  child: 

asm.  cildgeongne  49. 
cic5,  m.,  germ,  sprig,  sprout:  ap. 

cijas  76. 
clSne,  adj.,  pure :  asf .  clalne  44. 
clibbor,  adj.,  clinging,  cleaving: 

nam.  C.  13. 
craeft,  m.  skill,  science,  cunning: 

ds.  crsefte  C.  43. 
Crist,  pr.  n.,  Christ:   gs.  Cristea 

C.  4. 
cuman,  4,  come :  3  sg.  cyme>  30, 

cyme«  36,  100,  109,  C.  03 ;   opt. 

3  sg.  cyme  42  ;   pp.  cumen  97  ; 

inf.  77, 'C.  41. 
cunncin,  PP,  1.  know:    8  sg.  con 

170  ;  opt.  2  sg.  cunne  2  ;   opt.  3 

sg.  cunne  40.  —  2.   can,  be  able : 

3  8g.  con  171. 
cu3,  adj.,  known:    nsn.  c5)>  199; 

gsm.  cubes  143. 
cwealm,     mn.,     torture,     death, 

plague,  murder :  ns.  30,  199. 
cw^en,  f.,  a  tooman,  a  queen:  gs. 

cwene  82  ;  ds.  cweae  127. 
cwic,  adj.,  living  :  asm.  cwicne  114. 
cyn,  n.,  race,  people,  tribe,  prog- 
eny :   gs.  cynnes  32  ;    ds.  cynne 

138,  194,  C.  67. 
cyning,  m.,  king:  ns.  59,  82,  108, 

C.  1,  C.  28. 
cynren,    n.,    kindred,    kind:    as. 

C.  28. 
cypan,  \Vi,  sell:  8  sg.  cjpe})  109. 
cy3,  f.,  1.  knowledge.  —  2.  region, 

place,  land:  da.   cy>>e  80   (see 

notes). 


156 


GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


D 


dSd,  f.,  deed:  gp.  dseda  C.  86. 
dffig,  m.,  day :  gs.  dages  141. 
dSlan,   Wj,   share,    divide:    inf. 

C.  20. 
daroo.  m.,  dart,  spear:   ns.  C.  21. 
dgad,  adj.,  dead:  gsm.  deades  81  ; 

dsm.  deadiim  149  ;  gp.  deada  79. 
dSa3,  m.,  death:  ns. 35, 181  ;  dea> 

117  ;  ds.  dea>e  C.  61. 
d§a3dasg,  m.,  day  of  death :   ds. 

deaSdajge  C.  60. 
degol,  n.,  secret,  mystery:  as.  de- 

gol  2. 
demend,  m..,  judge:  ns.  C.  30. 
deop,  adj.,  deep,  mysterious :  nsm. 

79. 
dSope,   adv.,  deeply,  thoroughly: 

sup.  deopost  2. 
d§or,  T!.,  animal,  vnld  animal :  ns. 

148, 177. 
dSore,  adj.,  dear :  sup.  nsn.  deorost 

CIO. 
digol,  adj.,    secret,   obscure:    nsf. 

C.  02. 
dogor,  mn..  Jay :  gp.  dSgra  28. 
dol,  ad].,  foolish :  nsm.  35. 
dom,  m.,  1.  poioer,  honor,  glory : 

ns.  81;    as.   141.  —  2.  judgment, 

sentence  :  gs.  dOmes  C.  21,  C.  GO. 
don,   anv.,   do,  perform :    pret.  3 

sg.  dyde  C.  56. 
draca,  m.,   dragon,   serpent :    us. 

C.  2(5. 
drecan,  Wi,  vex,  afflict :  3  sg.  9. 
dreogain,  2,  jight :  pret.  3  pi.  dru- 

gon  201. 
drihten,  m.,  Lord :   ns.  C.  62  ;  as. 

dryhten  35. 
diihtlic,  adj.,  lordly,  noble:  nsr.. 

C.  26. 
drugian,  "Wj,  become  dry:    3  sg. 

druga«  188. 
dun,  f.,  vwu7itai7i,  hill,  down  :  ds. 

dune  C.  30. 


dura,  f .,  door :  na.  C.  36. 
dyrne,  adj.,  secitt,  hidden:  nam. 

79  ;  nsf.  C.  62  ;    asn.  dyrne  2 ; 

ism.  dyrne  C.  43. 

E 

5a,  f.,  water,  stream,  river :  ns.  C. 

30. 
Sadig,  adj.,  1.  noA :  nsm.  108  ;  da. 

or.  dp.  eadgura  167. — 2.  happy, 

blessed :  nsm.  37. 
eaiora,  m.,  son :  np.  eaforan  176. 
Sage,  n.,  eye :  ds.  eagan  123 ;  gp. 

eagna  39. 
eald,  adj.,  old,  ancient:  nsm.  C. 

30. 
ealdlan,  "W2,  grow  old :  inf.  8,  158. 
eall,    adj.,   all:    asn.    136  ;    dan. 

eallum  137  ;  gpn.  ealra  C.  48. 
card,  m.,  land,  country,  region: 

ap.  eardas  15. 
earg,    adj.,    timid,     weac:    asm. 

eargne  188. 
earm,  adj.,  poor,  vyretchcJ, :  nsm. 

37,  173,  C.  19. 
See,  adj.,  eternal '  nsm.  8,  200. 
ecg,  f.,  edge,  blade :  ns.  204,  C.  16. 
edhv73rrft,  m.,  change,  return :  na. 

42. 
efenfela,  adj.,  indecl.,  so  many,  as 

many :  17. 
eft,  adv.,   again,   aftti-wards :  77, 

105,  137,  157,  C.  63. 
egesfull,    adj.,   fearful,    terrible: 

nsm.  C.  30. 
Sglond,  n.,  island:  ns.  15. 
Sgaa,    m.,  owner,  possessor:    gs. 

egsan  107. 
ellen,  mn.,  strength,  courage:  na. 

C.  16;  ds.  elne"l88. 
ende,  m.,  end :  ds.  ende  137. 
ent,  m.,  giant:  gp.  enta  C.  2. 
eodor,   m.,  prince,  protector:  as. 

90. 
eofor,  m.,  boar:  ns.  c.  19  ;  as.  176, 


GrX>SSARY 


15T 


Poh,  m.,  'war-ftorse :  gs.  6o8  63. 
.eorl,  m.,  leader,  nobleman,  man : 

na.  03  ;  da.  eorle  84,  i;6,  C.  16,  C. 

32. 
'Corod,  n.,  host,  army,  band:  ns. 

63. 
^or8e,    f.,    earth:    ns.    eor)>e  73, 

eoiiSe   195 ;   gs.    eorhan  76 ;   ds. 

eorj'an  7,  26,    115   (?),    C.   34, 

C.  47,  eoriSan  C.  2  ;  as.  eor^an  33, 

168,  201. 
.f)tan,  6,  eat:  3  eg.  ieteS  112. 
.SSel,  mn.,  home,  native  place :  ds. 

eHe  37,  6-51e  C.  20. 


F 


-i^icen,  n.,  crime;  as.  C.  66. 
feeder,  m.,  father :  ns.  C.  63  ;  gs. 

faeder  C.  61  ;  as.  fseder  5. 
feege,  adj.,  doomed,  fated :  ns.  27. 
feegre,  &dy.,  fairly^  beautifully :  5  ; 

fiegere  C.  66. 
i&hpo,  t.,  vengeance,  feud,  hor.til- 

ity :  ns.  104. 
fSh,  adj.,   shining,  stained,   dyed: 

nam.  C.  22. 
liSsmne,  f.,  woman,  maid:  ns.  64, 

C.  44. 
faest,  adj.,  sure,  fast :  nsn.  C.  38. 
faeste,  adv.,  fast,  jirmly :  53,  64. 
laeathydig,  adj.,  steadfast  in  mind  : 

gp.  faesthj'digra  102. 
fae3m,   m.,    bosom,  embrace:    ds. 

ficSme  C.  61. 
iaeSman,    Wi,    embrace,   contain : 

3  sg.  fse))mel>  14. 
iSaJa,  see  fela. 

fealu,     adj.,    yellow,     dun,     dull- 
colored:    npf.   fealwe    63    (y3a 

implied). 
/gdan,    Wi,  feed :   opt.    3  eg.  fede 

114;  inf.  115. 
iela,  adj.,  indecl.,  I.  many:  np.  32; 

ap.  fela  14,  166,  foala  C.  12.— 


2.  many  a  {one)  :  ns.  102t.  — 

3.  much :  aa.  144. 
felafScne,  adj.,  very  crafty,  evU : 

ns.  felafiecne  148  (see  notes), 
felameahtlg,  adj.,  much,  mighty: 

nsm.  70. 
fen(n),  m., /en,  marsh:  ds.  fenne 

C.  42. 
feoh,  n.,  cattle:  ns.  C.  47. 
f5ond,  m.,  enemy,  foe:  ns.  C.  52. 
feor,  adv.,  far,  at  a  distance  :  103, 

140. 
feorhcyn,    n.,    living    kind:    gp. 

feorhcynna  14. 
feorran,  adv.,  from  afar,  far  of: 

C.  1. 
fSran,  Wi,  go,  pass,  travel:  S  sg. 

ffreS  140  ;  inf.  27,  C.  31. 
ferS,    niD.,    soul,    mind :   ns.    19 ; 

as.  1. 
feter,  f.,  fetter,  chain  :  ap.  fetre  76. 
fgjja,  m.,  infantry,  band  on  foot: 

ns.  64, 
finger,  m.,  finger  :  gp.  fingra  C.  38. 
firas,    mpl,,    living    beings,   men : 

gp.  fira  32,  144,  f yra  194. 
firgenatrSam,       m.,       mountain- 

s'ream:    np.    firgenstrgamas    C. 

47. 
flBC,  ni.,  fish  :  ns.  C.  27. 
fl6dgr«g,  adj., yfood-yray,  muddy  : 

nsf.  C.  31. 
flota,  m.,  ship,  fleet :  ns.  96. 
flowan,  R,  flow :  inf.  C.  47. 
folce,   n.,  folk,  people:  ds.  folce 

C.  44.  (on  folce,  publicly.) 
folde,  f.,  earth,  xcorld:  ds.  foldan 

32,  C.  33. 
for,  prep.  w.  dat.  and  ace.     1.  for, 

for  the  sake  of  (w.  dat.):  16,  C. 

50. — 2.  for,  because  of  (w.  dat.): 

149.  — 3.  before  (w.  ace.)  89. 
forcv7eJ>an,  5,  rebuke  :  inf.  49. 
forgiefan,  u,  give,  grant,  supply: 

pret.  3  sg.  forgeaf  136. 
forgietan,  5,  forget :  inf.  183. 


158 


GNOMIC  POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


forhelan,  4,  cover  over,  conceal: 

inf.  116. 
forlSoaan,  2,  lose,  destroy :  opt.  3 

6g.  forlfose  188. 
forman,  adj.,  Jirst,  earliest :   apn. 

91. 
lorsSS,  adv.,  trtily,  certainly:  C. 

64. 
forst,  m.,  frost :  ns.  72  ;  gs.  forstes 

76. 
forstelan,   4,   steal,    deprive :    pp. 

forstolen  190. 
for3,  adv.,  henceforth,  forth :  165. 
lorSgesceait,  i.,  future  condition: 

ns.  C.  61. 
forjjon  Jje,  conj.,  for,  because  :  5. 
frast-we,    pi.  f.,   ornaments;  inst. 

frajtwum  C.  27. 
fr2a,  m.,  lord:  gs.  fr^an  91. 
fremde,     adj.,    strange,   foreign: 

apm.  fremde  103. 
fremman,  Wi,  perform,   do :   inf. 

62. 
freond,  m.,  friend :  as.  146,  C.  44  ; 

np.  frj-nd  37. 
frSosan,  2,  freeze :  inf.  72. 
freon,  freogan,   Wj,   Zoce,  court : 

3  sg.?  freoS  103  (see  notes). 
fricgan,  5,  ask,  question  :  imp.  2  sg. 

frige  1. 
fr5d,  adj.,  1.  wise :  nsm.  19,  C.  12  ; 

asm.   frodne   19 ;    dpn.    frodum 

1.' — 2.  old,  ancient:  nsm.  C.  27. 
Iiym3,  mf.,  beginning,  origin:  ds. 

frynil'e  5. 
Frysa,  adj.,  Frisian :  dsn.  Frysan 

90.  ! 

fugel,  m.,fowl,  bird:  ns.  C.  38. 
ful.  adv.,  very,  full:  148,  187. 
full,  n.,lcup:  ap.  fulle  91. 
fxindian,  W^,   hasten,  tend  to  :  inf. 

52. 
fur}3um,  adv.,  at  first,  even:  194. 
U3,    adj.,   ready,  prepared,   ready 

for  death  :  asm.  27. 
yr,  n.,  fire:  ns.  72. 


tyrd,  t,  army :  na.  C.  31,  C.  62 ; 

ds.  fyrde  C.  52. 

fym,  adv.,  formerly,  lor.g  ago: 
165. 

fymgSar,  n.,  a  forr.ier  yiar:  dp. 
fyrngearum  C.  12. 

fyrwetgeom,  adj.,  curious,  inquis- 
itive :  gp.  fyrwetgeonra  102. 


gamelian,  "Wj,   grow  old:   3   sg. 

gomelaS  11. 
gangam,  anv.,  go,  takeplace,  occur: 

inf.  gongan  125,  gangan  C.  42, 
gSjT,    m.,   arrow,    dart:    ns.   233, 

C.  22. 
g5raljj,  m.,  spear  battle :  ua.  128. 
gsest,  m.,  spirit,  soul :   ds.  gSstft 

11  ;  np.  ga-stas  C.  59. 
g§ap,  adj.,  broad,  extended:  nsm. 

C.  23. 
gSar,  n.,  year:  gs.  gSrea  C.  9. 
gearnian,  2,  earn,  merit :  inf.  140. 
gearo, adj.,  ready,  pi epared :  nsm.? 

geara  193  ;  nsn.  g;aro  203. 
gebJSdan,  Wi,  compel :  inf.  105. 
gebeorh,  n.,  protection  :  ns.  C.  38. 
gebicgan,  Wi,  buy,  procure :  opt. 

3  sg.  gebicge  C.  45  ;  inf.  82. 
gebldan,  1,  await,  look  for :  3  sg. 

gebldeS  C.  12  ;  inf.  105,  C.  17. 
geblandan,  K,  mix,  mingle :   pp. 

geblanden  C.  41. 
gebringan,  3,  bring,  produce:  3 

&g.  gebringe^  51. 
gebyxd,  f.,  birth:  dp.   gebyrdum 

25. 
gebyre,  m.,  favorable  time,  oppor- 
tunity :  ns.  105. 
gecost,  adj.,  tried,  chosen:  gsm. 

gecostes  143. 
gecynd,  f.,  nature  :  ds.  gecynde  59. 
gedslan,   Wi,   divide,  distribute: 

opt.  3   sg.  gedSlen  69 ;    pp.  ge- 

dai'led  80. 


GLOSSARY 


159 


gedSl,  n.f  parting,  separatiriff :  ae. 

28. 
§ed5fo,  adj.,  aeemly,  Jit,  decent: 

nsn.  117  ;  nsn.  189. 
gedymem,  Wi,  conceal,  hide,  keep 

secret:  pp.  gedjn^ed  117. 
gefSra,  m.,  companion:   r.a.  148; 

dp.  geferan  147. 
geglerwan,    Wi,    prepare,    make 
'..         ready:  pp.  gegierwed  69. 
•       gegrgtan,  Wi,  greet:  inf.  90. 

gehealdan,  R,  keep,  hold,  restrain, 

save:   pp.    gehealden    122;    inf. 

101. 
gehggan,  Wi,  do,  perform,  hold: 

inf.  18. 
gehnigan,  1,  bow:  inf.  118. 
gehwS,  pron.,  each,  every,  every- 
thing :  dsm.  gehwum  28,  C.  11. 
gehwylo,  pron.,  each,  every  one: 

nsin.  125  ;   dsm.  gohwylcum  146, 

1«0  ;  asn.  C.  46. 
gelSran,  Wj,  teach,   advise,  per- 
suade :  3  pi.  gelSraS  20. 
gelic,  adj.,  like:   nsmn.  19;  nsn.? 

154. 
,     gelic,  adv.?  similarly,  alike:  154. 
'     gemaecca,  mf.,  companion,  mate, 

consort:  da.  155;  np.  gemseccan 

23. 
gemSne,  adj.,  mtttual :  nsm.  54. 
gemet,  n.,  measure,  limit :  ns.  33. 
gemonlan,  \V2,  admonish,  remind: 

inf.  6. 
S^n,  adv.,  still,  yet:   11. 
genaegled,  pp.,  nat7e<Z .'  94. 
genge,    adj.,    current,   prevalent: 

nsn.  121. 
geniman,  4,   take,   accept:    3  sg. 

genimeS  147. 
genugan,  2,  satisfy,  suffia :  3  8g. 

geneah  70,  184? 
g§ocor,  <idj.,  sad,  harsh:  gp.  (sb. 

use)  g^oc.-an  183. 
geofu,  f . ,  gijl :  dp.  geofum  84. 
geofen,  n.,  sea,  ocean :  ns.  52. 


geogoS,  f.,  youth :  ns.  C.  50. 
geond,    prep.   w.    ace.,    through^ 

throughout:  161,  201. 

geong,  adj.,  young:  ns.  8;  asm. 
geongne  45,  C.  14. 

geom,  B.d].,  desirous,  eager:  nam. 
59. 

g§r,  see  gSar. 

ger£gcan,  Wi,  reach,  offer,  pre- 
sent: inf.  92. 

geraede,  n.,  trappings,  harness  t : 
ap.  geiiedan  178. 

gerisan,  1,  suit,  befit :  S  sg.  geriseU 
64,  07,  gerlse>  126 ;  3  pi.  gerisatS 
]G0. 

gescealt,  fn.,  fate,  destiny,  condi- 
tion :  ns.  C.  65 ;  as.  gesceafte 
183. 

gesecean,  Wj,  seek,  get:  inf.  C. 
44. 

geaecgan,  Wi,  tell,  say :  inf.  2. 

geset,  n.,  seat,  habitation:  np. 
gc.setu  C.  66. 

gealgan,  1,  languish,  decline:  inf. 
118. 

geaihS,  f.,  vision,  sight:  gs.  ge- 
sihpe  40. 

geslugan,  3,  sing:  inf.  140. 

geaittan,  5,  sil :  8  pi.  gesittaS 
68. 

geaiS,  m.,  companion,  fellow :  np. 
gesISas  C.  14  ;  dp.  gesll>um  58. 

geaiSmsegen,  n.,  multitude  of  com- 
panio7is,  courtier-train  :  as.  89. 

geapringan,  3, 1.  trans,  get  by  go- 
ing, cause  to  spring :  3  sg.  g&- 
springeS  66.  —  2.  intrans.  spring, 
arise  :  pret.  3  pi.  gesprungon  19G. 

gestrynan,  Wj,  get,  acquire,  gain  : 
3  eg.  gestryne^  144. 

geatyran,  Wi,  restrain,  withhold: 
3  sg.  gestyrelS  106. 

geaund,  adj.,  sound,  favorable: 
dpn.  gesundum  58. 

gesw^ican,  1,  w.  dat.,  deceive,  be- 
'     tray :  8  pi.  geswica^  37. 


160 


GNOMIC   POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 


geafne,  adj.,  visible,  plain:  npf, 

gesyne  C.  1. 
getcon,  Wj,  make,  assign,  decree : 
pret.  3  sg.  geteode  6,  71  ;    pp. 
geteod  174. 
getnim,  n.,  band,  company :  ns.  C. 
32  ;  ds,  getrume  63. 

ge]5§on,    Wi,   do,  perform :     inf, 
C.44. 

ge^eon,  1,  grow,  prosper :   inf.  50, 
85. 

geSHian,  1,  thrive,  prosper:  3  sg. 
geMhS  37. 

geSingian,  Wj,  wake  terms,  settle 
a  dis/jute  :  pp.  gehingad  67. 

geSoht,  mn.,  thought,  mind:  ap. 
gel>ohtas  3. 

ge3onc,nin.,  thought,  mind,  under- 
standing :  ap.  gehonc  12. 

geow^Sre,  adj. ,  harmonious,  peace- 
ful :  npf.  gel'Wiere  57. 

ge}?yldig,  nd].,  patient,  long-suffer- 
ing :  nms.  12. 

ge'wealdan,    R,   rule,   command : 
pp.  gewealden  122. 

geweaxan,  Ji, grow,  increase:  inf. 
85. 

geweorc,  n.,  work:  ns.  C.  2,  C. 3. 

gevT-eorpan,  3,  go  away,  depart, 
pass :  inf.  77. 

geweorSan,  3,  be,  become :  pret. 
3  sg.  gewearS  165. 

gevriix,  n.,  battle,  contest :  as.  201, 
gewinn  C.  55. 

ge-wit,  m.,  knowledge,  understand- 
ing :  ds.  gewitte  48. 

gev7ltan,  1,  go,  depart:  3  sg.  ge- 
wltej.  CO,  lOo. 

getvTinian,  W^,  dwell,  remain :  inf. 
C.  18,  C.  42. 

gied,  u.,  proverb,  tale,  riddle:  ns. 
167  ;  dp.  gieddum  4. 

giefu,  f.,  gift :    as.  giefe  172  (see 
geofu. 

gif,  couj.,  if:   3,  34,  44,  71,  106, 
111,  114,  176,  C.  44. 


gifan,  5,  give :  inf.  153. 
gifre,  adj.,  greedy:  nsm.  70. 
gifstol,  m.,  gift-seat,  throne:  na^ 

69. 
gim,  m.,  gem,  jervel :  ns.  C.  22. 
gleoman,  m.,  gleeman,  singer :  ds. 

glfomen  167. 
gleaw^,   adj.,  wise:  npm.   glCawe 

4. 
gllw,  n.,  glee :  gs.  glTwes  172. 
glof,  f.,  glove:  ds.  glofe  C.  17. 
gnornlan,  Wj,  grieve,  mourn,  lO' 

me»t :  inf.  26. 
god,  n.,  good,  goodniSa :  ns.  J21, 

C.  50. 
god,  adj.,  good :  ns.  84  ;  nsm.  128  > 

npm.  g5de  C.  14. 
god,  m.,  God:  m.  8,  17,  76,  134,- 

156,  164,  172,  C.  9,  C.  35;   ds. 

gode  C.  69  ;  as.  god  4,  121. 
gold,  n.,  gold :  ns.  1^6,  C.  11  j  ds. 

golde  70,  C.  22  ;  as.  166. 
gomen,  n.,  game,  sport :  as.  183. 
gomol,  adj.,  old,  aged:   nsm.  C. 

11. 
graef,  n.,  grave  :  ns.  149. 
greg,  grceg,  adj.,  grey  :  nsm.  gr«ga 

151  ;  ds.  grgggum  149. 
grSne,  adj.,  green  :  nsm.  C.  36. 
gretan,  Wi,  greet:  inf.  171. 
^rim,  adj.,  severe,  terrible,  bitter.' 

dp.  grimmum  52. 
grome,  adv.,  fiercely,  cruelly :  62. 
growan,   R.  grow,  sprout :    3  sg. 

growe?  159  ;  inf.  73. 
gryre,  m.,  horror,  dread,  terror: 

ns.  149. 
guman,    m.,    man:    ns.   70;    gs. 

gaman  126  ;  ds.  guman  167  ;  np. 

guman   69 ;    gp.   gumena  C.  11  ; 

dp.  gumum  128. 
gu3,  f.,  war,  battle,  fight :  ns.  84. 
giiSbord,      u.,      warlike     board, 

shield :  ns.  203. 
gyman,  Wi,  care  for,  take  care  of, 

regard  :  3  sg.  gyme'5  1C4. 


GLOSSARY 


161 


H 


habban,  Wj,  have,  hold^  poseess : 
8Bg.  hafa«  107,  160,  bafaj>  172, 
174  ;  8  pi.  habba«  21,  67  ;  opt.  3 
eg.  haibbe  47  ;  inf.  183. 

hafuc,  m.,  hawk:  ns.  C.  17. 

hSil,  adj.,  whole,  hale,  safe  :  nsm. 
106. 

heelu,  f.,  health  :  as.  hSle  44. 

haBlei5,  m.,  man,  warrior,  hero : 
T)p.  haele-5  60  ;  dp.  haeleiSuai  C.  8. 

hSlig,  adj.,  holy:  dsm,  balgum  132. 

h3jn,  ni..  heme,  ds.  bum  97  ;  ag. 
100. 

hand,  f.,  hand:  ns.  houd  68,  122, 
184?:  ds.  hondOl,  bandaC.  21  ; 
dp.  hondum  171. 

hangian,  Wj,  hany,  be  suspended : 
inf.  C.  55. 

heerfest,  m.,  harvest,  autumn:  ns. 
C.  8. 

hat,  adj.,  hot,  fervent:  nsm.  78; 
sup.  nsn.  hatost  C.  7. 

hatan,  R,  command :  pret.  3  sg. 
bet  165. 

heeo,  f.,  heath,  waste:  ds.  bieSe 
C.  2',^ 

h£e3en,  adj.,  heathen:  dsm.  baJK 
num  182. 

he,  pron.,  he:  nsm.  5,  6,  lis,  12, 
42,  44,  46,  49,  50,  53,  106,  11  Ij, 
113,  1143,  175,  186,  188,  C.  6, 
C.  66,  C.  m  ;  nsf.  by  65,  103,  beo 
98,  hi  101,  beo  C.  44  ;  nsn.  bit 
113  ;  gsui.  bis  35,  87j,  38,  39,  41, 
97,  99,  100,  172,  188,  198;  gsf. 
hyre  64,  60,  80,  97,  hire  C.  44  ; 
dsm.  bim  37,  38.  40,  41,  42,  432, 
48,  99,  100,  106,  1C6,  110,  146, 
147,  169,  170,  1722,  174,  175  ;  dsn. 
bim  C.  49  ;  asm.  bine  9,  47,  48, 
492,  69,  98,  112,  114,  148  ;  asf.  by 
66,  66,  bl  C.  45  ;  asn.  hit  42,  116, 
162;  np.  hi  20,  40,  57,  176,  176, 
hy  182,  191,  192  ;  gp.  byra  19,  36, 


182 ;  dp.  him  64^  68,  92,  179, 182, 

183,  C.  9;  ap.  hi  34,  by  181. 
hSaf,   m.,    lamentation,   weeping: 

ds.  h«afe  150. 
hSafod,  n.,  head:  as.  beofod  68. 
hgaiodgim,  mf .,  head  jewel,  eye  :' 

ds.  heofodgimme  44. 
h6ahB9tl,   n.,   high  seat,  throne: 

ds.  beabsetle  70. 
healdan,  R,  keep,  preserve,  hold: 

3  pi.  bealda-S  36,  64,  68 ;  inf.  87, 

145,  C.  1  (rice  hecddan,  rule). 
heall,  f.,  hall:  ds.  healle  C.  28,  C, 

36. 
hSan,   adj.,    low,    humble,   abject, 

base:  nsm.  118;  gsm.  ?   beauan 

206. 
heard,   adj.  =  hard;    brave:    ds. 

beardum  ''.53,  205. 
hearpe,  f.,  harp:  as.  bearpan  171. 
helan,  4,  conceal :  2  sg.  bylest  3. 
helm,   m.,    helmet,   covering :    ns. 

205  ;  ds.  bellme  C.  16  ;  as.  74. 
heofan,  Wi,  lament,  grieve,  wail : 

3  sg.  beofe«  150. 
heofen,    m.,    heaven:    dp.    beofe- 

num  C.  35,  C.  40,  C.  48. 
heofod,  see  heafod. 
heonan,  adv.,  he7ice,  from  hence  : 

30. 
heoro,  m.,  sword:  as.  202. 
heorte,  f.,  heart :  ns.  39  ;  gs.  heor- 

tan  3  ;  as.  beortan  44. 
h5r,  adv.,  here  :  C.  64. 
hergan,  Wi,  praise,  glorify :  inf.  4, 
hldor,  adv.,  hither:  C.  64. 
hild,  f.,  war,  battle:  as.  hilde  C. 

17. 
hinder,  adv.,  down,  behind:  116. 
hliew,  m.,  cave:  ds.  bhewe  C.  26. 
hlgor,  n.,  cheek,  face:  ns.  66. 
hlud,  adj.,  loud:    sup.  nsm.  hlu- 

dast  C.  4. 
holen,  m.,  holly:  ns.  80. 
holm,  m.,  wave,  sea,   ocean:   ns. 

51,  106. 


162 


GNOMIC  POETRr  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 


holt,  mn.,  hoUf  wood,  grove:  da. 

holte  C.  19. 
hord,   mn,,  hoard,   treasure :   ns. 

68,  208. 
hosp,    m.,    reproach,    contumely: 

is.  hospe  66. 
hrsegl,  n.,  garment,  dress :  as.  99. 
hreSeadig,  adj.,  glorious,  noble : 

sup.  hr656adegost  C.  8. 
hrimig,    adj.,   rimy,   covered  with 

hoar-frost:  sup.  nsra.  hrimigost 

C.  G. 
bring,  m.,  ring:  ds.  hringe  C.  22. 
hrof,  m.,  roof:  ap.  hrSfas  C.  64.     - 
liruse,  f.,  ground:  ds.?  116. 
hunger,  in.,  hunger,  famine :  ds. 

hungre  150. 
huru,  adv.,  certainly,  in  any  case: 

151. 
husl,  n.,  the  housel,  the  Eucharist: 

ns.  132. 
hwa,  pron,,  vcho :  nsra.  114. 
hvB-Sr,   adv.,   where:   30;    every- 

tchere  ?  103. 
hwaeSer,  adv.,  still,  yet,  however: 

53. 
hweorfan,    3,    turn,    go :    3    pi. 

hweorfa-5  C.  59  :  inf.  07,  C.  68. 
hwonne,  adv.,  ichen :  69,  105. 
h'wyder,  adv.,  whither :  C.  58. 
hvT-ylc,  pron.,  what,  ns.  C.  65. 
hycgean,  W2,  take  thought,  think : 

inf.  C.  54. 
hyge,  in.,  1.  mind,  heart,  thought : 

ns.  122  ;  ds.  byge  200.  — 2.  cour- 
age :  ns.  205. 
hygecraeft,  m.,  intellect,  wisdom : 

as.  bygecraeft  3. 


Ic,  pron.,  /;  ns.  2  ;  da.  me  3  ;  as. 
mec  1  ;  np.  we  71,  136  ;  dp.  us 
5,  8,  12,  71,  1.36;  ap.  usic  6. 

lean,  Wi,  increase,  augmeiit,  eke : 
3  sg.  5'ce«  31. 


Ides,  f.,  woman  :  ns.  C.  43. 

Idel,  adj.,  idle,  Unemployed:  tat. 

Idle  184? 
iernan,  3,  run  :  opt.  3  sg.  yme  188. 
leteU,  see  etan. 
in,  adv. ,  in,  inside :  98. 
in,  prep.  w.  dat.  and  ace.    1.  in,  en, 

icithin,  at,  by  (w.  dat.):  7,  11, 

37,  41,  62,  67,  68,  84,  12.-1,  ISO. 

—  2.  into,  to  (w.  ace):  24,  80,  C. 

41. 
inbindem,   3,   for  onbindan  ?  un- 

biitd,  unlock:  inf.  75. 
innan,  prep.,  in,  trithin :  w.  dat. 

C.  43. 
Inwyrcan,  Wj,  perform  (a  rite)  : 
■  inf.  68  (see  notes^. 
IB,  n.,  ice  :  ns.  73. 
isern,  n. ,  iron,  steel :  ns.  C.  26. 


IScan,  R,  swing,  viove  as  a  ship  or 

bird :  inf.  C.  39. 
ISce,  m.,  leech,  physician,  doctor : 

gs.  ht'ces  45. 
Isedan,  Wi,  lead,  take,  carry  :  opt. 

3sg.  15de  112;  inf.  178. 
laguflod,  m.,  water,  stream:    ns. 

C.  46. 
land,  n.,  land:    gs.  londes  60;  ds. 

londe  53,   100,  lande  C.  43  ;  as. 

C.  53,  gp.  landa  C.  46. 
l£ne,    adj.,   fleeting,    transitory : 

asm.  lienne  6. 
lange,    adv.,    long,   a   long  time: 

longc  104  ;  sup.  lengest  79,  C.  6. 
leeran,  Wj,  teach:  inf.  45. 
lEeaest,  adv.,  least :  159. 
leetaji,  R,  let,  allow:  imp.  2  sg. 

l'*t  1. 
153,  n.,  injury,  hurt,  evil :  ns.  C. 

63  ;  ds.  la>e  C.  53. 
153,  adj.,  hateful :  nsra.  60. 
laSian,  Wj,  invite :  3  sg.  Ia1!a)>  98. 
Igaf,  n,,  leaf,  shoot:  dp.  26. 


GL0S8AEY 


163 


IBanif  n.,  reuxtrd,  reeomptn86:  ns. 

71 ;  gp.  leana  6. 
lear,  m.,  salmon,  pike :  ns.  C.  89. 
ISf,  adj.,  weak,  sick :  nsm.  45. 
lencten,  m.,  spring,  lent :  ns.  C.  6. 
lenge,  adj.,  related,  having  affinity 

with:  nan.  121. 
ISoda,  aeo  Ildsi. 
l^ode,  f.,  people,  race,  nation :  dp. 

leodum  8G. 
16of,  adj  ,  dtar :  nsin.  fcO,  95  ;  usn. 

86  ;  gs.  leofes  (sb.  use)  104. 
leoflan,    Wj,    live:    3   sg.   leofaU 

108. 
ISogan,  2,  tell  lies:  iuf.  71. 
ISoht,  n.,  light,  a  light :  ns.  C.  61 ; 

ds.  ICohte  07. 
ISoht,  adj.,  light,  not  heavy :  nan. 

95. 
IBohtmSd,  adj.,  light-hearted,  of 

cheerful  mind:  nan.  86. 
leomu,  see  lim. 
leomere,    m.,     learner,    scholar, 

reader:  ds.  leornere  131. 
16o3,  n.,  song,  poem:    gp.  leot)a 

170  ;  ap.  leo>  I'iO. 
llcgan,  5,  lie :  ptc.  npm.  licgende 

159. 
lida,  m,,  sailor,  traveler :  ns.  1C4  ; 

da.  leodon  109. 
Ill,  n.,  life ;  na.  C.  61 ;  aa.  6. 
llfgan,  W2,  hoe ;   1  pi.  lifga)>  136 ; 

inf.  lifgan  173  (aec  laofian). 
!lin,  n.,  limb,  branch  of  tree:  ap. 

leomu  26. 
llnJen,  adj.,  made  of  the  lime,  or 

linden,  tree  :   nsn.  95. 
llBB,  f.,  mercy,  favor :  aa.  Usse  71. 
Hat,  m.,  skill,  art,  craft,  cunning: 

na.  189. 
Ii3,  adj.,  pleasant,  sweet:   nj.  ll)) 

100. 
llSan,  1,  sail :  inf.  lT)>an  109  (li)>an 

cyme3,  comes  sailing). 
liSan,  ?    go,  suffer :    inf.  llj>an  ^ 

(see  notea). 


lof,  mi?..,  praUe,  glory:   gs.  lofea 

140. 
longati,  m.,  desire,  vtearinett:  as. 

longalS  169. 
lot,  n.,  deceit,  fraud  :  na.  189. 
lucan,  2,  lock  up :  inf.  74. 
lulu,  f.,  love:  ns.  100. 
lylt,  mfn.,  air,  atmosphere,  •Jty.* 

da.  lyfte  C.  3,  C.  39. 
lyithelm,  m.,  cloud,  air :  na.  C.  46. 
lyau,  n.,  wrong,  evil:    da.  lyswe 

189. 

M 

maecg,  m.,  man :  gp.  msecga  152. 

maedle?  180. 

tnagan,  PP,  may,  can :  3  ag.  maeg 

43, 106,  113,  166  ;  3  pL  magon  40. 
maegen,  n.,  might,  strength:    as. 

116. 
msegS,  1.,  girl,  maiden,  woman: 

ns.  107. 
magutimber,  n., progeny,  all  those 

who  are  born :  ga.  magutimbres 

83. 
m^l,  n.,  meal,  measure:  np.  mSl 

125. 
m^,  n.,  crime,  guilt:  ns.  monl97. 
mSnan,  Wi,  speak  of,  relate :  3pl. 

mSna"5  66. 
man(n),  m.,  man  .•    ns.  mon  7,  46, 

61,  man  67,  mon  108,  147,  156, 

162  ;  gs.  monnea  81, 124, 175, 185  ; 

ds.   men  132,  149,  153,  205 ;  as. 

monnan  45,   mon  65,  101 ;  np. 

men  4,  36,  69,  168 ;  gp.  monna 

138,  manna  C.  67  ;  dp.  mannum 

C.  65  ;  ap.  monnan  103. 
m^a,  see  mlcel. 
maest,   m.,  pole  to  support  saile 

mast :  ns.  C.  24. 
m5)>um,   xn5.ppvun,  m.,  treasure, 

jewel,    ornament:    na.    ma>J>um 

155  ;  dp.  maj>mam  88. 
mearb,  m.,  horse,  steed :  gs.  meares 

142  ;  dp.  mgarum  88. 


164 


GNOMIC  POETUY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 


mecgan,  "Wj,  stir^  mix :  inf.  C.  24. 
meltan,  2,  melt,  consume :  inf.  72. 
xaeodoraeden,    f.,     mead    [cere- 

mony  ?]  :  ds.  meodoriedenne  88. 
meotud,  m.,   God,  creator:  ns.  7, 

16,  29,  138,  165,  C.  49,  meotod 

C.  57  ;  1^3.  meotodes  C.  65. 
mere,  m  ,  sea,  lake:  ns.  107. 
mereflod,    m.,    flood    of    water, 

ocean  :  ds.  mereflode  C.  24. 
mete,  m.,  food,   meat:    as.    Ill, 

125;  ds.  mete  115. 
mejjc,     adj.,     weary,     exhausted: 

nsm.  111. 
micel,   adj.,   much,    great:    nsn. 

197  ;  npm.  myccle  C.  4  ;  comp. 

gsm.  (or  asn.  ?)  maran  111  ;  asn. 

miire  60,  152. 
mid,  prep.  w.  dat.,  with:  222,  25, 

36,  58,  6I2, 82,  86,  115, 171,  1892, 

C.  40. 
middangeard,   m.,  earth,   world: 

f^.  middangeardes  20. 
min,  pron.,  my :  asn.  2. 
missenlic,  adj.,  dissimilar,  differ- 
ent, various:  apn.  missenllcu  13. 
mod,  n.,  mitid,  'spiritual  opposed 

to  bodily  part  of  man :  ds.  mOde 

41,  51  ;  ap.  mod  13. 
modgeSonc,   mn.,   thought:    np. 

modgeJ>oncas  124,  168. 
mon,  see  man. 
mon,  see  man(n). 
mon,  pron.,  one,  they:  n.  mon  4, 

45,  47,  48,  49,  104,  112,  115,  139, 

145,  116,  1.56,  187,  man  C.  45. 
mona,  m.,  moon:  as.  monan  41. 
moncjni,  n.,    mankind,  men:  ds. 

inoncynne  16. 
monge,  see  monig. 
monian,   Wj,   claim,   ask :   3  eg. 

monatS  60. 
monig,  adj.,  many,  'many  a  :  asn. 

monig  15  ;  apm.  monig  168  ;  apf. 

monge  13  ;  dpf.  monegum  197. 
morjjor,  mn.,  murder :  as."  116. 


mor)>orc^77eaIm,    m.,    slaughter  ^ 

murder:  as.  152. 
motan,  anv.,  may,  can^  &,>  able: 

opt.  3  sg.  mote  4i). 
munan,  PP,  rememter,  be  mindful 

of:  3  sg.  mon  142. 
mund,  f.,  power,  protection:  dp. 

mundum  107. 
mu3,  m.,  mouth:  nB..C.  87;   gp. 

mut>a  126. 


N 


naeglan,  Wi,   nail:   pp.  nsn.  ge- 

megled  94.  .■.• 
ncenlg,  pron.,  none,  no  one :  nam. 

144,  nSni  C.  63. 
nales,  adv.,  not,  not  at  all :  150. 
n5t,  see  •w^ltan. 
ne,  adv.,  not:  1,  9,  88,  34,  40,  42, 

49,  56,  106,  113,  117,  161,  164. 
ne,  conj.,  nor,  neither:  9,  10,  IJ, 

40,  41. 
nefne,  conj.,  unless,  except:  106, 

186. 
nefre,  adv.,  never:  38. 
nelle,  see  w^illan. 
nergend,  m.,  Savior:  ns.  135. 
nergende,  see  nerian. 
nerian,  |^Wi,  protect,  nave :  pret. 

3  sg.  nerede  199  ;  ptc.  nsm.  ner- 
gende C.  63. 
neat,  n.,  provisions,  victuals:  ns. 

38. 
niman,  4,  take  away,  seize,  carry 

away :  3  sg.  nimelS  31,  120  ;  i:3f. 

157. 
ni3,  m.,  trouble,  effect  of  hatred: 

ns.  195,  200  ;  m>  198. 
nl-we,  adj.,  new  :  apf.,  nlwe  99. 
nyd,  n.,  necessity,  need,  distress: 

is.  nyd[e]  38. 
nyt(t),  adj.,  useful ;  sup.  nsn.  nyt 

tost  119. 
nyttian,  Wj,  f?iate  use  of,  enjoy: 

3  sg.  nytta«  110. 


GLOSSARY 


165 


o 


of,  prep.  w.  dat.,  1.  from,  out  of: 
30,  196,  C.  80.  — 2.   of:  44. 

Ofer,  prep.  w.  ace,  orer,  upon, 
throughout:  83,  168. 

ofercuman,  4,  overcome,  vanquish : 
pp.  ofercumtn  114. 

oft,  adv.,  often:  35,  65,  66,  101, 
146,  148,  187,  191, 

oftSon,  2,  take  attay,  deprive:  pp. 
oftigen  40. 

on,  prep.  w.  dat.  and  ace,  1.  on, 
upon,  in,  within  (w.  dat.):  7,  26, 
32,  48,  50,  58,  ^3,  70,  100,  104, 
113,  120,  127,  145,  183,  188,  203, 
204,  C.  2,  C.  3,  C.  10,  C.  17,  C. 
18,  C.  19,  C.  20,  C.  21,  C.  22, 
C.  23,  C.  24,  C.  25,  C.  26,  C.  27, 
C.  28,  C.  29,  C.  32,  C.  882,  C. 
84,  C.  85,  C.  36,  C.  37,  C.  £^2, 
C.  40,  C.  42,  C.  47,  C.  48,  C.  61. 
—  2.  on,  into,  to  (w.  ace):  112, 
130. 

Snettan,  "Wi,  be  btis-y,  be  active : 
inf.  l-:i. 

on  feorran,  adv.,  afar,  at  a  dis- 
tance: 63. 

onion,  R,  receive,  undergo  a  rite, 
acrepl :  3  sg.  onfeh'fi  70. 

ongs,  see  ange. 

ongildan,  3,  pay  penalty,  oe  pun- 
ished for:  inf.  C.  56. 

onginncin,  8,  1.  begin :  3  pi.  on- 
ginnati  52.-2.  attack:  Inf.  176. 

onh^le,  adj.,  secret,  hidden:  as. 
onhajlne  1. 

ord,  m.,  point  (of  a  weapon)  :  ns. 
204 

czSano,  adj.,  cumiing,  skilful: 
nsn.  C.  2. 

6)jer.  adj.,  other,  second:  nsm. 
103  ;  gs.  6>re8  16t'  ;  dsra.  o'Srum 
C.  52. 

oJ>  )jaet,  conj.,  until :  47,  48. 

o)3j?e,  conj.,  or,  and:  171,  177. 


rSd,  m.,  cowiuel,  wisdom :  ns.  22, 

119;  as.  92,  139. 
rand,  m.,  boss,  edge,  margin :  na. 

C.  37. 
rScifero,  m.,  brigand,  robber:  da. 

rcafere  130. 
reced,  mn.,  house,  hall,  palace : 

gs.  recedes  C.  37. 
recene,    adv.,    quickly,    straight- 

icay :  62,  ricene  92. 
reord,  {..speech,  tongue,  language : 

ap.  reorde  13. 
rice,  n.,  kingdom:  as.  C.  1. 
rice,  adj.,  poicerful,  mighty :  nsm. 

134. 
ricene,  83e  recene. 
ridan,  1,  ride:  inf.  63. 
rlht,  n.,  right,  justice,  truth:  ns. 

ryht  22,  119;  ds.  rihte  36. 
rinc,  m.,  warrior:   np.  rincas  178. 
rodor,  m.,  firmament,  heaven:  ap. 

rodcra-s  134. 
roglan,  W2,  flourish,  grow :    inf. 

110. 
rowan,    R,    roio :    3    sg.    r6wej> 

187. 
rum,  adj.,  roomy,  spacious,  ample, 

extensive :    nsm.   C.   37  ;     apm. 

rume  16,  134. 
rfimheort,   adj.,   liberal,    munifi- 
cent :  nsn.  87. 
run,  f.,  confidence,  counsel,  secret: 

as.  rune  87  ;  ap.  rune  139. 
ryht,  see  rlht. 

8 

sacan,  6,  fight,  contend:   inf.  28, 

C.  53. 
sacu,  f.,  strife,  sedition,  dispute: 

as.  sace  20. 
see,  mf.,  sea :  nsf.  65. 
BSel,  mf.,  time,  sectson:  dp.  s^lom 

52. 


166 


GNOJnC  POETRY  IN  ANGLO-SAXON 


bSt,   adj.,  painful,   grievous,  dis- 
tressing :  nsn.  sar  41. 

bSwuI,  f.,  soul,  life:    ns.  C.  68; 
gp.  sawla  135  ;  dp.  sAwlum  36. 

Bcead,  n.,  shade :  ds.  sceade  67. 

Bcoaft,  m.,  shaft  (of  a  spear)  :  ns. 
1.30  ;  ds.  sceaite  203. 

Bceomlan,    Wj,    feel    shame,    be 
ashamed:  pic.  sceomlande  07. 

Bc5ot,  n.,  shooting,   rapid   move- 
ment:  ds.  scCoto  C.  40. 

BceCSsin,  6,  hurt,  harm  :  pret.  3  sg. 
scOd  200. 

Bcieppan,  6,  create,  form :  pret.  3 
sg.  sceop  165. 

BCinan,  1,  shine:  inf.  C.  40. 

Bcip,  n.,  ship  :  ns.  94. 

Bcir,  adj.,  bright,  pure :  nam.  67. 

Bcop,  m.,  poet :  ns.  128. 

BcrlSan,  1,  go,  glide,  creep:  3  pi. 
scrlSa-S  C.  13  ;  inf.  C.  40. 

Bculan,  anv.,  must,  xoill,  shall:  3 
6g.  sceal  4,  Tj,  18,  22,  23,  24,  25, 
27,  382,  392,  45,  49,  60,  51,  61, 
032,  67,  68,  71,  72,  75,  77,  80, 
82,  84,  94,  101,  104,  115,  118, 
122,  123,  130,  131,  139,  145,  149, 
153,  1542,  150,  168,  173,  187, 
189,  203,  205,  C.  1,  C.  I62, 
C.  17,  C.  18,  C.  19,  C.  20,  C.  21, 
C.  22,  C.  23,  C.  24,  C.  25,  C.  26, 
C.  27,  C.  28,  C.  29,  C.  30,  C.  31, 
C.  32,  C.  33,  C.  34,  C.  35,  C.  30, 
C.  37,  C.  39,  C.  40,  C.  422,  C 
43,  C.  45,  C.  47,  C.  48,  C.  6O2, 
C.  6I2,  C.  54,  C.  58  ;  3  pi.  sceo- 
lon  4,  sceolun  62,  sceolon  83, 
125,  160,  182,  sceolan  C.  14; 
pret.  3  pi.  sceoldan  176 ;  opt. 
3  pi.  scyle  178. 

BCur,  m.,  shower:  ns.  C.  40. 

Bcyld,  m.,  shield:  ns.  94, 130  ;  da. 

scylde  C.  37. 
b5,  B80,  3aet,  1.  dem.  pron.,  deL 
art.,  the,  this,  that:  nsm.  80,  35, 
37,  38,  6O2,  70,    103,    112,    148. 


161,  173, 187,  190 ;  uflt  b5o  C.  68, 
C.  61 ;    nsn.  >{Bt  41,   117,   134, 
138,  196;  gsm.  J-sea  ?5,  124,  164, 
206  ?  ;  gsn.  J-sea  3;^,  42  r  70,  105, 
165  ?  ;    dsm.  )>am  71,  137  ;   dsn. 
>am  70,  190  ;  asn.  y>set  43,  160  ? 
C.  60,  C.  64  ;  isn.  ).y  lC-0  ;  npm. 
\>l  178.  C.  59  ;  gp.  >ara  6,  183.  — 
2.  rel.  pron.,  xoho,  which:  nsm. 
34,  43,  130  ;   nsf.  sio  161 ;  gsm.  . 
\>vcs  100 ;  asm.  J>one  199  ;  asf.  )•& 
21  ;  asn.  htet  2,  120,  186 ;  apn. 
i>&  31. 

sealt,  u.,  salt:  ds.  sealte  C.  45. 

Becgan,  Ws,  say,  tell,  speak :  opt. 
3  8g.  secge  C.  65  ;  inf.  139. 

Befa,  m.,  mind,  heart:    gs.  sefan 
169. 

Begl,  mn.,  sail :  ds.  segle  186. 

Begelgyrd,  m.,  yard  of  a  ship,  sail' 
yard :  ns.  C.  25. 

b51,  adv.,  comparative,  better:  sup. 
nsm.  selast  81. 

B3ldan,  adv.,  seldom  :  112,  188. 

Bale,  n.,  hall :  na.  168. 

sellic,  adj.,  strange,  wonderful: 
nsn.  127. 

B§maE,  Wi,  settle  (a  dispute)  :  3 
sg.  sSmaJ>  20. 

Bendan,  Wi,  send:  S  sg.  sendelJ 
C.  9. 

b5o,  f.,  apple  of  the  eye,  pupil :  ns. 
123. 

bSoc,  adj.,  sick,  ill:  nsm.  Ii2. 

BGomian,  W2,  rest,  han^,  lie  ««- 
curely:  inf.  C.  25. 

b5  3e,  pron.,  who,  which:  nam. 
sS  )>e  C.  12;  npm.  )>a  >e  C.  2; 
apm.  ^a  )>e  C.  9. 

sep^ah,  adv.,  nevertheless  hoio- 
ever :  104. 

Bib(b),  i., peace:  aa.  sibbe  20. 

Bid,  adj.,  spacious,  wide:  dam. 
sldura  186. 

Bigefolc,  m.,  victorious  people: 
gp.  sigefolca  C.  66. 


GLOSSiiRY 


167 


Blgesceorp,    n.,     triumphal    ap- 
parel: ns.  127. 
•Ino,  n.,  gold,  silver,  jewels:   ns. 

127,  C.  10. 
Bi?J,  m.,  jo'urney,  travel,  voyage: 

da.  6l)>e  104. 
BlS3an,  adv.,  a/ter,  from  the  time 

that :  BiJ-han  106, 104,  109,  sySSan 

C.  68. 
ftlSan,  6,  slay  :  pret.  3  sg.  slOg  108. 
Blltan,  1,  slit,  tear:  Ssg.  sllteS  148. 
alldan,    1,   harm,    hurt,  damage: 

ptc.  asm.  8lIJ>eEdne  202. 
BllSheatd,  adj.,  very  fierce :   nsn. 

slI^be^de  177. 
amilte,   adj.,   mild,  pleasant,  se- 

rene :  nsin.  55. 
enotor,  adj.,  wise,  prudent :  nam. 

C.    64;-.  npm.    snolre    36;    sup. 

nsm.  suoterost  C.  11. 
enyttro,  f..  xoisdorTi,  understand- 
ing:    ns.  Lsnyttro   123,  167;  da 

euyttro  22. 
Bc3,  n.,  truth :  ns.  C.  10 ;  as.  86. 
BoOcynIng,    m.,    kivg    of  truth, 

Deity :  ns.  136. 
Bpers,  n.,  spear,  lance:  ds.  spere 

204. 
BtSlan,    Wi,    avenge,    institute  f 

inf.  C.  54. 
Bt5n,  m.,  stone,  die:  ns.  100. 
Btandan,  8,  sta-^A:  3  sg.  8tonde|> 

00  ;    opt.  3  Bg.  Btondo  63  ;    inf. 

Btondan  04,  CO,  168,  standan  C. 

23,  C.  36. 
Bteap,  adj.,  prominent :  nsm.  C.  23. 
Btonn,  m.,  storm:  aa.  61. 
Btitel,  f.,  arrow,  ihaft :  ds.  strSle 

164. 
Btrgam,  m.,  stream:  ns.  C.  2.i. 
BtrSon,  BtrSowen,  f.,  couch,  bed, 

place,    where     anything     rests; 

hence,  a  chest  or  casket  for  treas- 
ure :  dp.  Etreonuui  C8. 
strong,  adj.,  strong:  dsn.    Btron- 

gum  51. 


Btyran,  Wi,  stettt  guide,  rule :  Inf. 

61. 
Btunor,  m.,  summer:  ns.  78,  C.  7  ; 

ds.  sumera  113. 
Bund,  n.,  ocean,  sea :  ns.  78. 
Bundor,  adv.,  severally,  each  6y 

himself:  169. 
Bunne,   f.,    sun :    as.   sunnan  41, 

112. 
Bunwlitlg,  adj.,  sunbeautiful :  sup. 

nsm.  Bunwlitegost  C.  7. 
Bwa,  adv.,  so,  thus:  32, 165,  200. 
Bw5,  conj.,  as,  even  as :  11,  C.  49 ; 

swa  .  .  .  swi,   adv.  and  conj., 

as  .  ,   .as:    66-67,  as  ...  so 

168. 
bw^Sb,    adj.,    one^s    own:    asm. 

switsne  108. 
Bwefcin,  5,  sleep :  inf.  179. 
flv^egel,  n.,  heaven,  sky,  sun:  ns. 

C.  7. 
Bwegle,  adv. ,  brilliantly :  78. 
Bwegltorht,    adj.,   heavenbrig?U : 

ap.  swegltorht  41. 
Bwelgan,  3,  swallow:   pret.  3  sg. 

swealg  194. 
Bweltan,  3,  die  :  inf.  27. 
Bweord,  n.,  sword :  ns.  C.  25  ;  ds. 

sweorde  120,  204. 
Bwift,  adj.,  swift :  sup.  nsm.  swift- 

ust  C.  3. 
Bwltol,  adj.,  clear,  sweet,  evident: 

sup.  nsn.  switoloat,  C.  10. 
B'^3,  adj.,  strong  :  sup.  nsf.  swi'Sost 

C.  6. 
Bylf,  pron.,  self,  himself:  nsm.  sylf 

1C5,  168,  sylfa  138,  C.  60. 
Byllon,    Wi,   give,   grant:    3    sg. 

syleS  12,  sylel>  09  ;   pret.  3  sg. 

scalde  172  ;  opt.  3  eg.  sylle  48 ; 

inf.  43,  166. 
Bymle,  adv.,  always :  89. 
aya,  f.,  sin,  crime,  vyrong,  hostil- 
ity:   np.   8yn;,e  132;    ap.  synne 

C.  64? 
sySdan,  see  siSSan. 


168 


GNOMIC   POETRY  IN   ANGLO-SAXON 


teefl,   f.,  a  board  for  playing  a 

game,  a  die :  as.  ta*fle  182. 
taefle,  adj.,  gaming,  given  to  play : 

gsm.  taifles  185. 
teala,  adv.,  icell :  46. 
tfcon,  from  tilian,  1,  accuse :  3  sg. 

tlhS  187. 
teon,  W;,  create,  ordain,  arrange : 

prel.  3  sg.  t^ode  84,  43. 
teosel,  ni.,  small  stone  ;  hence  die : 

dp.  teoselum  185. 
Gd,  f.,  time,  a  certain  time:  dp. 

tidum  125. 
til,  adj.,  kind,  good, excellent :  nsm. 

23,   142,   C.  20  ;  gsm.  tiles  142  ; 

dp.  tilum  23. 
tirfasBt,   adj.,   glorious:    gp.   tlr- 

fajstra  C.  32. 
to,  prep.  w.  gen.  and  dat.,  1.  w. 

gen.,  there,  thither:  35.  —  2.  w. 

dat.,    to:   53,  91,  97,    129,    147, 

155,  C.  152. 
to,  adv.,  too:  111,  112,  144. 
torn,   adj.,   tame,   not  wild:  gsm. 

tomes  142. 
tobredan,  3,  separate  by  a  quick 
inovement,  turn  the  back,  break 

of:  opt.  3  pi.  tobreden  192. 
todSlan,    Wi,    separate,    divide: 

opt.  3  Rg.  todSle  181. 
toglidan,  1,  glide  away,  slip  off: 

opt.  3  sg.  tOglide  182. 
torht,  adj.,  bright :  gsf.  torhtre  40. 
torn,  n.,  emotion   (anger  or  sor- 

roif:)  :  ns.  182. 
t53maeger,  n.,  strength  of  tusk : 

gs.  toSmnegeues  C.  20. 
toweorpan,  3,  scatter,  bandy :  3 

pi.  toweorpaS  191. 
treow,  f .,  faith,  truth :   ns.  160, 

V.  32. 
trCovTu,  n.,  tree:  np.  treo  160. 
trum,  adj.,  Jirm,  strong:  nsm.  C. 

20. 


trymmRa,  Wi,  strengthen :  Inf.  46. 

tu,  see  twSgen. 

tun,  m.,  inclosure  surrounding  a 

dwelling,  a  habitation  of  men : 

ds.  tune  146. 
tiingol,   n.,   heavenly    body,  sun, 

moon,  star,  planet :    ns.  C.  48  ; 

ap.  tunglu  40. 
twSgen,  num. ,  two  :  nm.  182  ;  nn. 

in  23. 
tydran,  \Vi,  be  prolific :  inf.  C.  48. 
tyhtan,    Wj,    incite,    urge,    per- 

suaded :  inf.  46. 
tyman,  \Vi,  teem :  inf.  C.  48. 


3aer,  adv.,  there,  where:  ,b^r  124, 

146,  C.  66. 
8aet,  conj.,  1.  that,  in  noun  clauses 

(subj.  and  obj.):    J>aet  42,    176, 

188,   200?   C.  45.-2.  that,   in 

order  that  (in  purpose  clauses): 

)>xt  46,  50. 
3e,    pron.,    indecl.,    toko,    which, 

that:  ]>e  30,  35,  37,  6O2,  73,  112, 

116,  165,  170?  172,  173,  C.  59, 

C.  64. 
8§ah,  a.dv., though,  although:  J>eah 

112,  113. 
Seaw^,    ra.,    custom,    usage:    gp. 

l^eawa  18. 
Sencan,  Wi,  think :   3  sg.  )>er.cet^ 

116. 
3enden,  conj.,  while:  henden  182. 
8eod,  f.,  nation,  peopli: :  ds.  peodo 

50  ;  np.  beode  57  :  jrp.  heoda  18  ; 

dp.  K'odum  197. 
Seoden,  m.,  lord,  ruler  {Christ  or 

God)  :  ns.  f>eodon  12. 
3gof,  in.,  thief:  ns.  >Cof  C.  42. 
3§oatru,  fn.,  darkness :  dpn.  )>y8- 

tnim  C.  42,  dp.  ^ystruin  C.  51. 
3es,  pron.,  this:  gsf.  I'ys.se  C.  55; 

dsf.  hysse  C.  2  ;  asf.  \>as  34,"  0741. 


GLOSSARY 


169 


Cin,  pron.,  thy,  thine :  asm.  >Inne 

1,  3  ;  apm.  >Ine  3. 
Sing,  n.,  1.  meeting:  as.  J>mg  18. 

—  2.  circum'itance :   dp.   )>mgiiin 

58. 
SoUan,  Wi,  suffer^  lose,  suffer  loss : 

inf.  );olian  89. 
Sonne,   adv.,  tohen  (half  roith  a 

causal  idea,  since)  :    bonne  42, 

185. —  to/ten;  >onne  50,  96,  103. 

109,  110,  117. 
Sonne,  conj.,  then,  yet,  ^O'ine  108, 

170  ?.  — correl.  iSoune  . .  .  (Sonne, 

when  .  .  .  then :  >onne  . .  .  >onne 

67,  68 
8r5g,  f.,  time,   season:    ds  |>rage 

yS  ;  dp.  bragam  C.  4. 
Sriflte,  adj.,  bold:    nam.  or  apm. 

Crista  61. 
SriBthycgende,  adj.,  Jirrr  cf  pur- 
pose :  nsm.  ^riathycgende  60. 
Srymm,  m.,  glory,  majesty,  mag- 
nificence :     ns.     )>rym    61  ;     ap. 

Kyramas  C.  41. 
3u,  pron.,  thou:   ns.  )>u  2,  l>u  3 , 

ds.  be  2. 
Sunar,  m.,  thunder :  ns.  }>unar  C.  4. 
Surfan,  PP,  need,  have  netd,  he  of 

nee  I:  S  sg.  J>earf  111,  126. 
6f,  conj.,  because  :  \>y  32. 
8y  ISs,  conj.,  the  less,   lest:   ]>y 

ISs,  170. 
Syra,  m.,  giant,  demon:   ns.  hyre 

C.  42.  y.^ 

Systre,  see  Sgoatxu. 


U 


cunbor,  n.,  child:  np.  (or  »p.  ?) 
umbor  31. 

under,  prep.  w.  dat.  and  ace, 
under:  1.  w.  dat.  186.  —  2.  w. 
ace.  C.  64.  —  case  indeterminate : 
116,  116. 

ungetrSow,  adj.,  untrue,  unfaith- 
ful :  nsm.  163. 


ongln,  adj.,  not  ample:  sap.  nsm. 

unginnost  206. 
unl^d,     adj.,    poor,    miserable: 

nsm.  120. 
uninyt,   adj.,   useless:    sup.    nan. 

unnyttost  120. 
unstille,  adj.,  not  still,  unquiet: 

nsn.  78. 
un)jinged,    adj.,    sudden,    uneX' 

pected,  unasked:  nsn.  35. 
unwioted,  adj.,  uncertain:  asm. 

unwiotodne  146. 
uppe,  adv.,  on  high:  C.  38. 
user,  pron.,  our :  asm.,  useme  5. 

\7£gd,  f.,  garment, dress:  as.  w»do 

48  ;  ap.  wade  99. 
vrml,  n.,  slaughter,  carnage:   as. 

151. 
■wSl,  mn.,  deep  pool,  gulf,  stream  : 

ds.  wSle  C.  39. 
■waldend,  m.,  ruler.  Lord :  ns.  43. 
wamm,  mn.,  moral  stain,  impur- 
ity:  dp.  wommum  65,  101. 
wanian,  Wj,  diminish,  curtail:  3 

sg.  vk^anige  34. 
w^gSpen,  n.,  loeapon :    gp.  wSpna 

201. 
■wrSr,  f.,  compact,  treaty :  ajs.  wSre 

101. 
vrarig,  adj.,  stained  with  seaweed, 

soiled :  asn.  99. 
wSrlSas,  aid].,  false:  nsm.  162. 
V7sescan,  6,  vmsh :  3  sg.  waesceiJ 

99. 
wccstm,  m.,  fruit:  ap.  waestmas 

C.  9. 
waster,    n.,    water:    ns.    74;    gs. 

wailres  110  ;  ds.  wsetere  C.  27. 
w5a,  m.,  woe,  misery :  ns.  C.  13. 
wealdan,  R,  rule:  3  sg.  wealdeS 

137. 
weall,  m.,  wall,  cliff:  np.  weallas 

64. 


170 


GNOMIC  POETRY  UH  ANGLO-SAXON 


vreallan,  R,  boil,  foam,  rage :  Inf. 
C.  45. 

•w^eallBtan,  m.,  stone  for  building : 

gp.  ■weallstana  C.  3. 
•wearh,   m.,   outlaw,  villain :    na. 

C.  55. 
vresLun,  adj.,  toarm:  nen.  113. 
•wearn,    m.,    a    multitude,    great 

deal:  dp.  wearnum  187. 
weaiian,  R,  grow,  increase:  inf. 

ICO. 
vreccaa,  Wi,  wake,  waken :  3  sg. 

■weceS  56. 
■weder,  n.,  1.  weather:  dp.  wede- 

rum  C.   42.  —  2.  good  weather: 

ns.  77. 
•weg,  m.,  way:  ns.  waeg  79;  gp. 

%vega  145. 
^regan,  5,  bear,  carry:  inf.  74. 
"vrel,  adv. ,  well :  145. 
■wSnjin,  "Wi,  expect,  await :   3  eg. 

■w^ne^  42  ;  inf.  w6nan  104. 
vrendaxi,  Wi,  change,  turn :  3  pi. 

wenda'S  9. 
weorpan,  3,  throio :  3  sg.  weorpetJ 

185,  190. 
•weoriUan,    3,   be,   become :   8   sg. 

■weorl>e"5   117,  weorS   156;  3  pi. 

•weorl>e'5  32  ;  pret.  3  sg.  wearS 

194 ;    opt.    3    8g.    weorSe    106 ; 

•weorJ)e  111. 
■wepan,  R,  weep,  mourn,  bewail : 

3  sg.  wepetS  151. 
■wer,  m.,  man:  ns.   24;   ds.  were 

C.  oS  ;   as.   101  ;   gp.  wara   166  ; 

dp.  -werum  128. 
•wSrig,  adj.,  weary:  nsm.  187. 
■wesan,  anv.,  be,  exist:  3  sg.  bi> 

8,  19,  35,  40,  41,  55,  59,  70,  81, 

110,  112,  114,  117,  119.  173,  177, 

biS  S7,  54,  79,  97,  1022,  104,  121, 

124,  C.  10,  C.  13;   is  134,  138, 

193,  C.  61,  byiS  C.  3,  C.  4,  C.  5j, 

C.  6,  C.  7,  C.  10 ;  3  pi.  bColS  23, 

C.  1,  beol>  57,  IG82,  syndon  C.  2, 

syndan  C.  4  ;  pret.  3  sg.  wies  11, 


199,  (w.  neg.)  nses  196;  opt.  8 

Bg.  By  33,  118,  C.  66,  wese  50 ; 

opt.  pret.  8  8g.  wser©  176 ;  opt. 

pret.  3  pL  waeran  178  ;  Inf.  wesan 

84,  86,  113,  165,  bfion  87. 
wic,  n.,  place,  dwelling :  ns.  110  ; 

as.  108. 
•wIctreoSu,  f.,  peace  am^ng  dwell- 
ings :  as.  wIcfreoJ)a  129. 
'BTide,    adv.,    widely,    in    differetU 

places :  14,  196,  199,  201. 
'widgangol,  adj.,  rambling^  roving  : 

nsn.  ■widgongel  65. 
•wlf,  n.,  woman :  ns.  24,  65,  85, 

101 ;  ds.  wife  96. 
wig,   n.,   fght,   conflict:    ns.   85  j 

as.  129. 
"wiht,  fn.,  aught :  as.  wiht  9. 
■wiicuraa,  m.,  welcome  ptraon :  na. 

95. 
■wilde,  adj.,  wild:  nsm.  C.  18. 
willa,  m.,  xoill :  as.  willan  6. 
■willan,   anv.,   xcill,    wish:    8    Eg. 

wile  6,  wille  162  ;  (w.  neg.)  1  bg. 

nelle  2  ;  8  sg.  nelle  C.  44  (see 

notes)  ;  1  pi.  nellaiS  71. 
wind,  m.,  wind:  ns.  64,  56,  C.  8 ; 

ds.  winde  187,  C.  41. 
■windan,  3,  txoiit,  roll,  wec»e ;  pp. 

wunden  153. 
■wine,  m.,  friend:  as.  145. 
■wlneleas,   adj.,   friendles.^ :  nsm. 

147,  174. 
•winter,  m.,  temper;  ns.  77,  C.  6. 
wis,  adj.,  toise :  dp.  wisum,  22. 
wisdom,  m.,  wisdom :  ns.  C.  33. 
w^iBlic,   adj.,   wise:    npn.    wisllcu 

106. 
wist,    f.,    sustenance,   food:    as, 

wist  48. 
w^Ite,  n.,  punishment,  torture :  as. 

wite  43. 
witan,  PP,  know,  be  aware :  3  sg. 

w.^t  29,  42,  44,  146,  C.  57,  0.  62  ; 

(w.  neg.)  3  sg.  nat  35,  114  ;  inf. 

92. 


GLOSSARY 


171 


Trl8   prep.  w.  dat.  and  aco.,  1.  w. 

dat.,  against :  wij>  187,  wi«  C.  16, 

C.  fn)„  C.  51,,  C.  62„  C.  53.— 

2.  w.  ace.,  with :  wifl  19,  wij>  101, 

121. 
■wipre,  n.,  resislanc* :  as.  54 ;  ds. 

129. 
^7lanc,  adj.,  splendid,  sumptuous : 

nsm.  C.  27. 
■wlenoo,  f.,  pride,  high  tpirit:  da. 

wlenco  61 
■Woden,  m.,  Wodin,  Wotan,  Teu- 
tonic god  ojvar:  ns.  18.3. 
^r6h,    n.,    xorong,    injustice :    ap. 

weos  133. 
•wolcen,    n.,    cloud:    np.    wolcnu 

C.  13. 
'wonhydlg,  adj.,  foolish,  c^irdess: 

nsm.  162. 
^7onB^lig,   adj.,  u.%blest,   misera- 
ble :    nsm.    147 ;    np.    wonsaelge 

21. 
word,  n.,  word,  tpeech:  op.  word 

166 ;   dp.   wordum  1,   191 ;    ap. 

word  65. 
■worn,   m.,  multitude,   many:  as. 

i70.     See  wea.n. 
w^oruld,   f.,  xoorlJ:    gs.    worulde 

C.  65;  as.  24,  34,  C.  41. 
T7racu,  f.,  misery,  exile:  ns.  163. 
•vrxdsd,    m.,    bandage,    band:   us. 

153. 
^nSitUc,    adj.,    noble,    excellent, 

beautiful:  nsm.  C.  3. 
Ti^ritan,  1,  write:  inf.  1£9. 
■wrbrlan,     Wi,     exchange,     deal: 

inf.  4. 


wrOhtdropa,  m.,  drop   Mnginff 

strife  or  crime :  np.  wrOhtdropaa 

196. 
wTidti,  m.,  wood:  nB.  C.  33;  as. 

72  ;  gp.  wuda  110. 
"wnldor,  n.,    glory,    Jieaven:   da. 

wuldre  7  ;  as.  133. 
wtdf,  m.,  wolf:  ns.  151,  C.  18 ;  ap. 

wulfas  147. 
■WTindor,  n.,  wonder :  dp.  wundmm 

(icondrously)  74,   (wonderfully) 

C.  13. 
vrunian,  Wj,  dwell:   3  8g.  wuna^ 

C.  66  ;  inf.  174. 
wjm,  i.,  joy,  delight:  ns.  107. 
•wyrcean,  wyrcan,  Wi,  work :  pret. 

3  sg.  worhte  133 ;  inl  wyrcean 

C.  21. 
wyrd,  f .,  fate :   ns.  174,  C.  6 ;  np. 

wyrda  9. 
\7yrp,  f.,  recovery :  as.  wyrpe  43. 


^can,  see  lean. 

yfel,  n.,  evil:   na.  120;  ds.  yfele 

C.  50. 
yldo,  f.,  {old)  age:  ns.  10;  ds. 

yldo  C.  50. 
ymb,  prep.  w.  ace,  round  about: 

28,  C.  46,  C.  53,  C.  56. 
ymbsittan,  5,  sit  around,  sit  at: 

inf.  182. 
yrie,  n.,  inheritance,  property :  ns. 

80. 
yme,  see  ieman. 
y8,  f.,  wave :  dp.  yiSum  C.  23. 


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